DYNASTIC ATLAS · 76 APPROVED ENTRIES
A dynasty is not just a box in a row.
Western Han, Xin, and Eastern Han remain separate. The atlas preserves the concurrent worlds of the Three Kingdoms, Sixteen Kingdoms, Northern and Southern Dynasties, Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, and Song–Liao–Jin–Xia.
Law, measure, and unification
Qin Dynasty
The Qin (221–207 BCE) was the first unified centralized regime in Chinese history. Its capital was Xianyang, and its predecessor was the state of Qin, a Zhou vassal state. The Qin rulers belonged to the Huaxia peoples, later generally categorized as Han Chinese, and the dynasty connected the political world of the Zhou with that of the Han dynasties. After conquering Qi and unifying the realm in 221 BCE, King Zheng o
Chang’an and an expanding world
Western Han
Western Han was the first major phase of the Han dynasty. It was founded by Liu Bang, Emperor Gaozu, in 202 BCE as a unified empire with its capital at Chang'an. The dynasty transmitted power through twelve emperors and lasted for more than two centuries. In its early period, the government followed policies associated with Huang-Lao thought, emphasizing recovery, light taxation, reduced corvée, and limited interfere
An age of radical reform
Xin dynasty
Xin (9–23 CE) was the short-lived regime established after Wang Mang replaced the Han dynasty, representing a period of nominal unification between Western Han and Eastern Han. In 8 CE Wang Mang deposed Ruzi Ying, and in the following year formally proclaimed himself emperor and established the state of Xin, with its capital at Chang'an, whose first character was officially replaced by a homophonous character under X
Luoyang, classics, and frontier
Eastern Han
The Eastern Han (25–220) was a unified dynasty that reunited the Central Plains after the Western Han and is collectively known with it as the Han dynasties. Because its capital Luoyang lay east of the former Western Han capital Chang'an, contemporaries contrasted the “Eastern Capital” with the “Western Capital,” and later generations therefore called the dynasty Eastern Han. Since the Western Han came first and the
A realm divided in three
Three Kingdoms period
Wei 魏Shu Han 蜀汉Wu 吴The Three Kingdoms period, in the narrow sense from 220 to 280, was the era in Chinese history when the three regimes of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Sun Wu stood in tripartite balance. It also marked the beginning of the broader Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties era. In the narrow definition, the period began in 220 when Cao Pi accepted the abdication of the Han emperor, replaced the Han with Cao Wei, and broug
Concurrent polity
Cao Wei
Wei (220–266), conventionally known as Cao Wei, was the state founded by the Cao family after replacing the Eastern Han and was one of the Three Kingdoms alongside Shu Han and Wu. It inherited the territory and institutions of the Eastern Han, controlled the Central Plains, and was the strongest, largest, and most populous of the three states. In 220, the first year of the Huangchu era, Cao Pi accepted the abdication
Concurrent polity
Shu Han
Shu Han, from the first year of Zhangwu (221) to the first year of Yanxing (263), was a state established in southwestern China by Liu Bei during the Three Kingdoms period. Its official state name was “Han”; later historians generally called it “Shu Han,” “Shu,” or “Western Shu” to distinguish it from Western Han and Eastern Han, while contemporaries also referred to it as “Ji Han.” Liu Bei was said to be a descendan
Concurrent polity
Sun Wu
Wu, also known as Eastern Wu, was one of the three major states of the Three Kingdoms period and was established by the Sun family in the Jiangdong region. Its foundations can be traced to the late Eastern Han, when Sun Jian and Sun Ce fought across the south and secured the six commanderies of Jiangdong. Sun Quan succeeded them, recruited capable officials, and consolidated the state. In 229 he proclaimed himself em
Unified dynasty
Western Jin
Western Jin was the first phase of the Jin dynasty and succeeded the era of Three Kingdoms division. In 265, Sima Yan compelled the Wei emperor to abdicate and founded Jin; in 266 he formally inaugurated the Taishi era. Western Jin lasted until 316, when Emperor Min surrendered to Liu Yao of the Xiongnu-led Han-Zhao state, for a total of roughly fifty years. Early Western Jin briefly reunified the empire and enjoyed
Period overview
Eastern Jin and Sixteen Kingdoms Period
The Jin and Sixteen Kingdoms period (Western Jin, 266–316; Eastern Jin, 317–420; Sixteen Kingdoms, 304–439) was a major transitional era in Chinese history between the Three Kingdoms and the Northern and Southern Dynasties. It saw the Western Jin's brief reunification give way to prolonged north-south division and extensive interaction among Han and non-Han populations. In 265, the second year of Xianxi, Sima Yan rep
Unified dynasty
Eastern Jin
The Eastern Jin (317–420) was the second phase of the Jin dynasty. In the final years of the Western Jin, the War of the Eight Princes was followed by the Disaster of Yongjia. Luoyang and Chang'an fell in succession, and Emperor Huai of Jin and Emperor Min of Jin were captured and later killed, plunging the Central Plains into disorder. In 317, the fifth year of Jianxing, Sima Rui, Prince of Langya, rebuilt the Jin c
Period overview
Sixteen Kingdoms Period
The Sixteen Kingdoms period was the era between the collapse of Western Jin power and Northern Wei's unification of northern China, during which polities led by multiple ethnic and military groups repeatedly rose and fell across northern China, Bashu, and western Liaoning. The term “Sixteen Kingdoms” is a later historiographical convention and does not mean that only sixteen states existed; Ran Wei, Western Yan, Zhai
Regional polity
Former Zhao
Former Zhao (304–329), also known as Han-Zhao, was a regional regime founded during the Sixteen Kingdoms period by the Liu clan of the Xiongnu Tuge branch. It was also the first regime established during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. In the final years of the Western Jin, Liu Yuan, commander of the Left Division of the Xiongnu, assumed the title King of Han at Zuoguocheng in 304, the first year of the Yongxing era, un
Regional polity
Cheng Han
Cheng Han (304–347) was a regional regime of the Sixteen Kingdoms period, founded by Li Xiong, a leader of the Ba-Di (Cong) people. It controlled the Shu region of Yizhou and established its capital at Chengdu, and was therefore also called “Cheng” and “Later Shu.” In the final years of the Western Jin, refugees from the Guanzhong region moved south. Li Te, a leader of the Ba-Di, rose in rebellion against Jin. His so
Regional polity
Later Zhao
Later Zhao (319–351), also called Shi Zhao because its ruling house bore the surname Shi, was a Sixteen Kingdoms polity established by the Jie leader Shi Le. Shi Le had originally served Liu Yuan's Han state during the anti-Jin wars at the end of Western Jin and gradually built an independent power base. In 319 (second year of Eastern Jin Daxing), at Xiangguo (present-day Xingtai, Hebei), he styled himself Chanyu and
Regional polity
Dai
Dai (c. 315–376) was a regional regime of the Western Jin and Sixteen Kingdoms period established by the Tuoba branch of the Xianbei, who were active in the southern Mongolian steppe and were also known at the time as the Suotou or Tuoba group. It was the predecessor of the Northern Wei. Its territory broadly covered present-day south-central Inner Mongolia and northern Shanxi, and its political centers included Shen
Regional polity
Former Liang
Former Liang was a regional regime in the Hexi Corridor during the Sixteen Kingdoms period, established by the Han Chinese Zhang family. In 301, the first year of Yongning under the Western Jin, Zhang Gui, a member of a prominent Liangzhou family, became Inspector of Liangzhou and Colonel Who Protects the Qiang, thereby laying the foundation of the regime. Zhang Gui died in 314, the second year of Yongxing, and his s
Regional polity
Former Yan
Former Yan (337–370) was a regional regime of the Sixteen Kingdoms period established by leaders of the Murong Xianbei. Its state name was "Yan." Because its territory included lands associated with the ancient state of Yan, the regime adopted that name. Later historians, following the terminology of the *Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms*, called it Former Yan to distinguish it from later Yan regimes
Regional polity
Former Qin
Former Qin (351–394), also known as Fu Qin, was a Sixteen Kingdoms regional regime founded by the Fu clan of the Di people from Lueyang. The name "Former Qin" was used in contrast to the Later Qin of the Yao clan and the Western Qin of the Qifu clan and first appeared in the *Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms*. Because the regime occupied territory associated with the ancient state of Qin, it took "Qin
Regional polity
Later Qin
The Later Qin (384–417), also known as Yao Qin, was a regional regime of the Sixteen Kingdoms period established by the Yao clan of the Qiang people. Its state name derived from its rule over the former territory of the Qin state of the Warring States period. The *Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms* used the designation “Later Qin” to distinguish it from Former Qin and Western Qin, while the ruling hous
Regional polity
Later Yan
Later Yan (384–407, or according to another reckoning until 409) was one of the Murong Yan regimes of the Sixteen Kingdoms period and was established by the Xianbei ruler Murong Chui. Murong Chui was the fifth son of Murong Huang of Former Yan. After Former Yan fell, he submitted to Former Qin; following Fu Jian's defeat at the Battle of the Fei River, Murong Chui proclaimed himself Prince of Yan at Xingyang in 384 a
Regional polity
Western Qin
Western Qin was a regional regime established by the Xianbei Qifu tribe in the Longxi region during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Around 385, the tenth year of the Eastern Jin Taiyuan era, Qifu Guoren rose at Yuanchuan and assumed a royal title, founding the regime later known as Western Qin. The state was once destroyed by Later Qin and was restored around 409, the fifth year of Yixi. It thus experienced two foundati
Regional polity
Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)
The Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms) (the eleventh year of Taiyuan, 386, to the second year of Yuanxing, 403) was a regional regime of the Sixteen Kingdoms period founded in Liangzhou in the Hexi region by the noble Lü Guang of the Di people. Its state name derived from Liangzhou, and it became known historically as the “Later Liang” to distinguish it from Western Liang, Southern Liang, and Northern Liang, which likewi
Regional polity
Southern Liang
Southern Liang was a regional regime established by the Xianbei Tufa clan during the Eastern Jin and Sixteen Kingdoms period. The Tufa were a branch of the Hexi Xianbei. They rose during internal disorder in the Later Liang and established a political base around Lianchuan. At its greatest extent, the polity controlled areas of present-day western Gansu and eastern Qinghai, stretching from west of Lanzhou eastward to
Regional polity
Southern Yan
Southern Yan was a regional regime established by the Murong branch of the Xianbei during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. After the death of Murong Chui, ruler of Later Yan, internal disorder weakened the state. His kinsman Murong De led his followers south across the Yellow River and established control in the area of present-day Shandong. In 398 he proclaimed himself emperor and made Guanggu the capital, creating the
Regional polity
Western Liang
Western Liang was a regional regime of the Sixteen Kingdoms period founded in 400 by the Han Chinese ruler Li Gao in the western Hexi Corridor. It first established its capital at Dunhuang and later moved the capital to Jiuquan. The regime lasted twenty-one years under three rulers—Li Gao, Li Xin, and Li Xun—and was destroyed by Juqu Mengxun of Northern Liang in 421. Its name derived from its location in the western
Regional polity
Northern Liang
Northern Liang (397–460) was a regional regime of the Sixteen Kingdoms period established in the Hexi Corridor by the Juqu clan of the Lushuihu, a branch of the Xiongnu. It was one of the five regimes in the Hexi region that used “Liang” as a state name and was later called Northern Liang because its territory lay to the north of the other Liang regimes. The regime first arose when Duan Ye established himself at Jian
Regional polity
Hu Xia
Hu Xia was a late Sixteen Kingdoms polity established by Helian Bobo of the Xiongnu Tiefu tribe. As Northern Wei rose and Later Qin weakened, Helian Bobo rebelled in the northern Guanzhong region, established himself around Shuofang, and founded a state under the dynastic title Hu Xia. He repeatedly attacked Later Qin, captured people and resources, and built Tongwancheng as his capital, becoming a major power in the
Regional polity
Northern Yan
Northern Yan (407–436) was a regional regime of the Sixteen Kingdoms period, established when the Han Chinese leader Feng Ba supported Gao Yun's accession. Its capital was Longcheng, in present-day Chaoyang, Liaoning. At its founding the regime continued to use “Yan” as its state name. Later historians distinguished it from other contemporary states named Yan by geographical direction and called it Northern Yan. Beca
Regional polity
Ran Wei
Ran Wei (350–352) was a short-lived Han Chinese regime in the Central Plains during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Ran Min was originally named Shi Min and had the courtesy name Yongzeng. He was from Neihuang in Wei Commandery. His father, Ran Zhan, came from the Qihuo military communities and was adopted as a son by Shi Hu, Emperor Wu of Later Zhao, making Ran Min an adoptive grandson of Shi Hu. Ran Min initially serv
Regional polity
Tuyuhun
Tuyuhun was a regional polity established in the Qinghai region by the Tuyuhun branch of the Xianbei after it migrated westward from Liaodong near the end of the Western Jin. It lasted for roughly three and a half centuries. Its founder was Murong Tuyuhun, an elder half-brother of the Murong Xianbei leader Murong Hui. After disputes among their followers, Murong Tuyuhun led his people westward, passing through the Yi
Period overview
Northern and Southern Dynasties Period
The Northern and Southern Dynasties period (420–589) was an era in Chinese history when the Southern Dynasties and Northern Dynasties existed in prolonged parallel and political confrontation. In 420, Liu Yu replaced Eastern Jin, proclaimed himself emperor, and established Liu Song, marking the beginning of the Southern Dynasties. In the north, the Tuoba-founded Northern Wei became the principal regime, controlled mu
Period overview
Southern Dynasties
The Southern Dynasties is the collective name for Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang, and Chen, four dynasties whose principal capital was Jiankang. They succeeded Eastern Jin and remained in long-term confrontation with the Northern Dynasties. Their political core lay in the middle and lower Yangtze and Jiangnan regions, while at their greatest extent they also controlled parts of the Huai River region, the Han River regi
Period overview
Northern Dynasties
The Northern Dynasties refers collectively to a succession of dynasties that ruled northern China during the Northern and Southern Dynasties period. It is conventionally dated from the establishment of the Northern Wei regime by Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei, Tuoba Gui, to the abdication of the last Northern Zhou emperor and the founding of the Sui Dynasty. It was not a single state name, but a historical continuum c
Concurrent polity
Liu Song
Liu Song (420–479), the first polity of the Southern Dynasties, was established by Emperor Wu, Liu Yu, after replacing the Eastern Jin. It is called Liu Song to distinguish it from the later Song dynasty. Liu Yu rose from humble origins through military campaigns at the end of Eastern Jin, suppressing internal rebellions and launching several northern expeditions. In 420 he forced Emperor Gong of Jin to abdicate, est
Concurrent polity
Southern Qi
Southern Qi (479–502) was the Southern Dynasties regime that followed Liu Song and preceded Liang during the Northern and Southern Dynasties period. It was founded by Xiao Daocheng. Originally a Liu Song general, Xiao Daocheng gradually gained control of military power after suppressing political and military disturbances. In 479, he received the abdication of the throne and proclaimed himself emperor, taking Qi as t
Concurrent polity
Liang dynasty
The Liang dynasty of the Southern Dynasties was established by Xiao Yan (Emperor Wu of Liang) after the Southern Qi and had its capital at Jiankang (present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu). Xiao Yan came from the Lanling Xiao clan and shared ancestry with the Southern Qi imperial house. In the first year of the Tianjian era (502), he replaced Qi and established himself as emperor, naming the state Liang. In its early period th
Concurrent polity
Chen dynasty
The Chen dynasty (557–589), the last regime of the Southern Dynasties, was founded by Chen Baxian after he replaced the Liang dynasty and established his capital at Jiankang. It was ruled in succession by Emperor Wu, Emperor Wen, Emperor Fei, Emperor Xuan, and the Later Ruler, for a total of about thirty-two years. The Chen court held only a corner of the Jiangnan region, and its territory was much smaller than that
Concurrent polity
Northern Wei
Northern Wei (from the first year of the Dengguo era, 386, to 534) was a contemporaneous regime of the Sixteen Kingdoms and Northern and Southern Dynasties periods. It was founded by the Tuoba clan of the Xianbei, at one point unified northern China, and remained a dominant Northern Dynasty for an extended period. It was also the longest-lived of the Northern Dynasties. Its state name was originally “Wei”; because it
Concurrent polity
Eastern Wei
The Eastern Wei (534–550) was a coexisting regime of the Northern Dynasties during the Northern and Southern Dynasties period. It was established under the control of the powerful minister Gao Huan, described in the source as a sinicized Han Chinese, after he defeated the Erzhu forces and took control of the eastern territories of Northern Wei. In 534, the third year of Yongxi, Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei refused
Concurrent polity
Western Wei
Western Wei (535–557) was a regional regime that emerged after the division of Northern Wei. Yuwen Tai, a Xianbei aristocrat based in the Guanzhong region, enthroned Yuan Baoju, a grandson of Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei (Yuan Hong), while the state continued to use the dynastic name “Wei” and established its capital at Chang'an (present-day Xi'an, Shaanxi). It became known historically as “Western Wei” because it
Concurrent polity
Northern Qi
Northern Qi (550–577) was a parallel regime of the Northern Dynasties founded by the Gao family and descended politically from Eastern Wei. In 550, the first year of the Tianbao era, Gao Yang, the second son of Eastern Wei strongman Gao Huan, forced Emperor Xiaojing Yuan Shanjian to abdicate and proclaimed himself emperor. He named the state “Qi,” adopted the Tianbao era name, established the capital at Ye (in the ar
Concurrent polity
Northern Zhou
Northern Zhou (557–581) was one of the Northern Dynasties during China's Northern and Southern Dynasties period. Its political foundations were laid by Yuwen Tai, the dominant minister of Western Wei. After Yuwen Tai's death, his nephew Yuwen Hu, another powerful Western Wei minister, supported Yuwen Jue in formally establishing Northern Zhou in 557, with its capital at Chang'an in present-day Xi'an, Shaanxi. Because
Unified dynasty
Sui Dynasty
The Sui was a short-lived dynasty that ended the long division between northern and southern China and restored political unification. Near the end of Northern Zhou, the imperial relative Yang Jian replaced Zhou and founded Sui. In 589, the ninth year of the Kaihuang era, Sui conquered Chen and ended nearly three centuries of division since the late Western Jin. The dynasty established a central government built arou
Cosmopolitan Chang’an
Tang Dynasty
The Tang was a major unified dynasty in Chinese history, lasting from 618 to 907. It was marked by strong state power, extensive territory, and frequent interaction with neighboring peoples and polities. High Tang culture had far-reaching influence, and Tang poetry, calligraphy, painting, music, and other arts became enduring high points of Chinese civilization. Chang'an and Luoyang attracted people from many regions
Short-lived polity
Wu Zhou
Wu Zhou was the regime established after Wu Zetian proclaimed herself emperor. Its state name was Zhou, and later historians call it “Wu Zhou” to distinguish it from the earlier Zhou dynasty and other states of the same name. It retained most of the Tang Dynasty's territory, bureaucracy, and fiscal institutions, made Luoyang the Divine Capital, and used changes in official titles, newly created characters, ritual pro
Concurrent polity
Tibetan Empire
The Tibetan Empire was the first polity in the history of the Tibetan Plateau to establish large-scale unified rule. Songtsen Gampo consolidated the Yarlung tribal alliance, placed the political center at Luoxie, and entered the political systems of East and Central Asia through institution-building, military expansion, marriage alliances, and diplomatic missions. Relations with the Tang Dynasty included prolonged wa
Regional polity
Nanzhao
Nanzhao (738–902) was a polity of ethnic groups in southwestern China in antiquity. It was established after Pi Luoge, leader of Nanzhao's predecessor polity, unified the Six Zhao with Tang Dynasty support in 738, the twenty-sixth year of the Kaiyuan era. Its capital was established at Taihe City, and Pi Luoge received the title King of Yunnan. At its greatest extent, Nanzhao reached Guizhou in the east, the Irrawadd
Period overview
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period
The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period was a transitional era between the fall of Tang and the Northern Song's reunification of most of the Chinese heartland. In 907, the fourth year of Tianyou, Zhu Wen forced Emperor Ai of Tang to abdicate, proclaimed himself emperor, founded Later Liang, and established his capital at Kaifeng; this marked the beginning of the Five Dynasties. The Central Plains then passed succe
Concurrent polity
Later Liang
The Later Liang (907–923) was a Central Plains regime founded when Zhu Wen (Zhu Quanzhong), the late-Tang Military Commissioner of Xuanwu, usurped the Tang throne. It was the first of the Five Dynasties and the first Chinese dynasty to make Kaifeng its capital. Because its imperial house bore the surname Zhu, it was also called “Zhu Liang” to distinguish it from the Liang dynasty of the Northern and Southern Dynastie
Concurrent polity
Later Tang
The Later Tang (923 – 11 January 937) was a Five Dynasties regime in the Central Plains founded by the Shatuo Li clan. Its territory covered present-day Henan, Shandong, Shanxi, and Hebei, central Shaanxi, eastern Gansu, northern Hubei, and northern Anhui. Its founder Li Cunxu, eldest son of Li Keyong and a descendant of the Shatuo leadership, proclaimed himself emperor at Weizhou in 923, inaugurated the Tongguang er
Concurrent polity
Later Jin
The Later Jin (936–947) was one of the Five Dynasties and a Central Plains regime. Its founder, Shi Jingtang, had been the Military Commissioner of Hedong under the Later Tang. After falling out with Li Congke, the last emperor of Later Tang, he sought aid from the Khitans (Liao). In exchange for Khitan military support, Shi Jingtang accepted the humiliating status of a “son emperor” and ceded the Sixteen Prefectures
Concurrent polity
Later Han
The Later Han (947–950; by one reckoning extending to 951) was the fourth of the Five Dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. It was founded by the Shatuo ruler Liu Zhiyuan and was also called “Liu Han.” Liu Zhiyuan had served as the Later Jin Military Commissioner of Hedong. After the Khitans (Liao) destroyed the Later Jin and left the Central Plains without a ruler, he raised troops, proclaimed
Concurrent polity
Later Zhou
Later Zhou (951–960) was the last Central Plains polity of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Its capital was Dongjing Kaifeng Prefecture (present-day Kaifeng, Henan). It had three emperors—founder Guo Wei, Emperor Shizong Chai Rong (born with the surname Chai), and Emperor Gong Chai Zongxun—and lasted about nine years. Guo Wei claimed descent from Guo Shu of the Zhou royal line and in 951 (first year of Gua
Regional polity
Former Shu
Former Shu was one of the Ten Kingdoms, established in Sichuan by the late-Tang warlord Wang Jian with its capital at Chengdu. Wang Jian rose from the ranks of the military and gradually gained control of Western Sichuan, Eastern Sichuan, and parts of Hanzhong in the late Tang. After Later Liang replaced the Tang, he proclaimed himself emperor. Sichuan's enclosed terrain and relatively strong agricultural and handicr
Regional polity
Later Shu
Later Shu was a regime of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period that controlled much of present-day Sichuan. Its state name was “Shu,” and it is known historically as Later Shu to distinguish it from Former Shu, founded earlier by Wang Jian. Its founder Meng Zhixiang had originally been the Later Tang Military Commissioner of Xichuan. After the Later Tang destroyed Former Shu in 925 (the third year of Tongguang)
Regional polity
Yang Wu
Yang Wu was a southern regime of the late Tang and Five Dynasties period founded by Yang Xingmi and ruled by the Yang family. Its formal state name was Wu. To distinguish it from Sun Wu of the Three Kingdoms period and other states called Wu, later historians commonly call it “Yang Wu” or “Southern Wu.” Yang Xingmi defeated Sun Ru and other rivals in the struggles among Huainan warlords and gradually gained control o
Regional polity
Southern Tang
The Southern Tang (937–975) was a polity in Jiangnan during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Its capital was Jinling Prefecture (present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu). It was ruled by three monarchs—Li Bian, the founding ruler; Li Jing, the middle ruler; and Li Yu, the last ruler—for a total of thirty-eight years. It was among the Ten Kingdoms with the broadest territory and one of the most culturally flourishing.
Regional polity
Wuyue
Wuyue was a regional polity founded by the Qian family in the Liangzhe region, covering present-day Zhejiang, Shanghai, and part of southern Jiangsu, during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. It began when Qian Liu was enfeoffed as Prince of Wuyue in 907, the first year of the Kaiping era of Later Liang, and ended in 978, the third year of Taiping Xingguo under the Northern Song, when the last ruler, Qian Ch
Regional polity
Min
Min (909–945) was a polity of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period ruled by the Wang family in Fujian. Its founder, Wang Shenzhi, was enfeoffed as Prince of Min in 909 (third year of Later Liang Kaiping) and made Fuzhou, also called Changle Prefecture, his capital. After 926 (first year of Tiancheng), its rulers used the title "King of Great Min", and in 933 (fourth year of Later Tang Changxing) Wang Yanjun for
Regional polity
Ma Chu
Chu (907–951), conventionally known as Ma Chu and also called Southern Chu, was one of the southern Ten Kingdoms during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Founded by Ma Yin with its capital at Changsha (Tanzhou), it was the only historical regime centered on Hunan. The names “Ma Chu” and “Southern Chu” derived respectively from the ruling family's surname and the state's southern location and referred to the
Regional polity
Southern Han
Southern Han was a regional regime of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period based in Lingnan, covering areas of present-day Guangdong, Guangxi, and Hainan. Its official state name was “Han”; it is known as Southern Han to distinguish it from Northern Han in Hedong. Its foundations were laid by the brothers Liu Yin and Liu Yan, who controlled Guangzhou and brought the Lingnan prefectures under their authority in
Regional polity
Jingnan (Nanping)
Jingnan (also known as Nanping) was the smallest in territorial extent among the Ten Kingdoms of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. It controlled the area around present-day Jingzhou in Hubei, with its seat at Jiangling (present-day Jingzhou). It developed from the power base of Gao Jixing, who served as Military Commissioner of Jingnan under the Later Liang, and was formally established in 924. It was ruled
Regional polity
Northern Han
Northern Han (951–979) was a northern regional regime of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, occupying parts of present-day central Shanxi and limited areas of Shaanxi and Hebei. It was one of the Ten Kingdoms. Because it controlled the former Hedong region, it was also called “Eastern Han,” and because it was founded by the Liu family it was also called “Liu Han.” In 951, the fourth year of the Qianyou era o
Period overview
Song–Liao–Jin–Western Xia Period
The Song–Liao–Jin–Western Xia period was an era in which the Song coexisted and interacted intensely with Liao, Western Xia, Jin, and other polities. In 960 Zhao Kuangyin replaced Later Zhou and founded the Northern Song, then subdued the southern states. In the north, however, the Khitan Liao and in the northwest the Tangut Western Xia remained independent rivals. The early Song attempted unsuccessfully to recover t
Learning, cities, and reform
Northern Song
The Northern Song (960–1127) was a Central Plains regime founded by Zhao Kuangyin after the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Its capital was Dongjing Kaifeng Prefecture (present-day Kaifeng, Henan). It had nine emperors and lasted 167 years; together with the Southern Song it is collectively known as the Song dynasty, or the “Two Songs.” Because the imperial house bore the surname Zhao, it was also called “Zha
Unified dynasty
Southern Song
The Southern Song (1127, the first year of the Jianyan era, to 1279, the second year of the Xiangxing era) was the later phase of the Song dynasty after the imperial court moved south. Together with the Northern Song, it is known as the “Two Song.” It lasted about 152 years and had nine emperors: Gaozong, Xiaozong, Guangzong, Ningzong, Lizong, Duzong, Emperor Gong, Duanzong, and Emperor Bing. Lin'an (present-day Hang
Unified dynasty
Liao dynasty
The Liao dynasty (the Khitan state) was a northern polity in Chinese history established by the Khitans. It is also known as Great Khitan and Great Liao. Its history is commonly traced from Yelü Abaoji's proclamation as emperor in 916 to its destruction by the Jin dynasty in 1125, a span of about 210 years and nine emperors. The Khitans are described here as descendants of the Donghu and a branch of the Xianbei, shar
Regional polity
Western Xia
Western Xia (1038–1227) was a Tangut-ruled regional state based in the Hexi Corridor and Hetao region of northwestern China. Because it lay to the west or northwest of the Central Plains, later historians called it Western Xia. The state itself used names including Great Xia, a Tangut name rendered in Chinese as “Bangnidingguo” (one interpretation gives “White Upper State”), and the Great State of White and High. Son
Unified dynasty
Jin dynasty
The Jin dynasty was a northern Chinese polity established by the Jurchens (1115–1234). Wanyan Aguda, leader of the Jurchen tribes, rose against the Liao dynasty and established the Jin state in the first year of the Shouguo era, with its capital at Shangjing Huining Prefecture. The Jin successively destroyed the Liao dynasty and the Northern Song, extending its territory south to the line of the Huai River and the Qi
Regional polity
Dali Kingdom
The Dali Kingdom was a regional state founded by Duan Siping in Yunnan, with its political center in the Erhai region. Its territory and influence covered most of present-day Yunnan, and it maintained contacts with the Song dynasty, Tibetan groups, and regions of Southeast Asia. Its history is commonly divided into Former Dali and Later Dali. At the end of Former Dali, Gao Shengtai briefly changed the state name to D
Concurrent polity
Western Liao
Western Liao was the state founded in Central Asia by the Liao imperial clansman Yelü Dashi after his westward migration. Its rulers continued to use Liao as the state name; because it lay west of the former Liao realm, it is known as Western Liao, while Islamic sources commonly call it Qara Khitai. The state was governed by a Khitan ruling group and exercised sovereignty over multiethnic cities and steppe regions of
Routes across Eurasia
Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), formally Great Yuan and also known as the Mongol Yuan or Imperial Yuan, was the first unified Chinese dynasty founded by the Mongols. In 1271, the eighth year of Zhiyuan, Kublai Khan accepted the suggestion of Liu Bingzhong and, drawing on the phrase “Great indeed is Qian, the Origin” from the *Book of Changes*, adopted the Chinese dynastic name Great Yuan. The state was also styled Grea
Court, ocean, and commerce
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), founded by Emperor Taizu of Ming, Zhu Yuanzhang, was a unified Han Chinese polity that ended the fragmentation of the late Yuan period. The dynasty initially established its capital at Nanjing and later moved the capital to Beijing under the Yongle Emperor, producing the arrangement commonly described as the "two capitals and thirteen provinces." The dynasty lasted for nearly three centu
Continuation regime and period overview
Southern Ming
The Southern Ming (1644–1662) is the collective name for several regimes established in southern China by members of the Ming imperial house after the Chongzhen Emperor died by suicide and Qing forces entered China proper. It lasted eighteen years. On the nineteenth day of the third lunar month of 1644 (Chongzhen 17), Li Zicheng captured Beijing and the Chongzhen Emperor Zhu Youjian hanged himself at Coal Hill, bring
Empire at a global turning point
Qing Dynasty
The Qing (1644–1912) was the last imperial dynasty in Chinese history and was established by the Manchu Aisin Gioro house. It was also known as the Great Qing, the Great Qing State, and the Great Qing Empire. Its ancestral founder, Nurhaci, leader of the Jianzhou Jurchens, established a state and assumed the title khan in 1616, the forty-fourth year of the Wanli era. The state was called Jin and is known historically