Later Shu

Overview

Later Shu was a regime of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period that controlled much of present-day Sichuan. Its state name was “Shu,” and it is known historically as Later Shu to distinguish it from Former Shu, founded earlier by Wang Jian. Its founder Meng Zhixiang had originally been the Later Tang Military Commissioner of Xichuan. After the Later Tang destroyed Former Shu in 925 (the third year of Tongguang), Meng entered Chengdu as regional commander and gradually became independent amid Later Tang internal turmoil, eventually proclaiming himself emperor. Later Shu therefore did not directly inherit Former Shu; it was a new regional regime that emerged after Later Tang rule in Sichuan collapsed. The capital was Chengdu. At its height, its territory encompassed most of present-day Sichuan and the Chongqing area, along with parts of southeastern Gansu, southern Shaanxi, and western Hubei. Later Shu had two rulers, Meng Zhixiang and Meng Chang. Meng Zhixiang proclaimed himself emperor and inaugurated a new era in 934 (the first year of Later Tang Yingshun), and the regime lasted until Meng Chang surrendered to the Northern Song in 965 (the third year of Qiande), a total of thirty-two years. In its early period the government reduced burdens and Sichuan enjoyed prolonged stability and prosperity; in the later period court luxury increased and frontier defense weakened, and the regime was ultimately annexed by Northern Song.

Historical Development

Establishment of the Era: In 925 (the third year of Tongguang), Emperor Zhuangzong of Later Tang sent Li Jiji, Prince of Wei, and Guo Chongtao to destroy Former Shu. Meng Zhixiang was then appointed Mayor of Chengdu and deputy Military Commissioner of Xichuan, and in the following year (the first year of Tiancheng, 926) entered Chengdu. He suppressed the rebel commander Li Shaochen, improved administration, provided for the army, and reduced burdens on the population, bringing relative stability to Sichuan. Under Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang, Meng Zhixiang and Dong Zhang, Military Commissioner of Dongchuan, jointly resisted the central government. In 932 (the third year of Changxing), Meng defeated and killed Dong Zhang and annexed Dongchuan, taking control of both Sichuan circuits. In 933 (the fourth year of Changxing), he was enfeoffed as Prince of Shu. In the first month of 934, the first year of Later Tang Yingshun, Meng Zhixiang proclaimed himself emperor at Chengdu, adopted Shu as the state name, and inaugurated the Mingde era. Meng Zhixiang died later that year, and his son Meng Chang succeeded. Meng Chang continued to use the Mingde era name until 938, the fifth year of Mingde, when he changed it to Guangzheng.

Height: Early in his reign, Meng Chang attempted energetic government. He encouraged remonstrance, promoted agriculture and sericulture, supported schools, executed the powerful official Zhang Ye, and forced Zhao Tingyin into retirement in order to consolidate authority. Protected by the difficult terrain of Sichuan and largely spared from warfare in the Central Plains, the region enjoyed almost thirty years of relative peace. Its economy and culture developed, and Chengdu in particular became prosperous. Historical accounts often describe this period as one of stability and abundance in Sichuan.

Decline: In the later years of the regime, Meng Chang increasingly pursued luxury and pleasure. He selected large numbers of palace women, favored Lady Huarui, and filled Chengdu with hibiscus and peonies. At the same time, he entrusted state affairs to close associates such as Wang Zhaoyuan, while military leadership became weak. As Later Jin, Later Han, and Later Zhou rose and fell in succession, the trend toward reunification in the Central Plains became increasingly clear. In the second year of Later Zhou Xiande (955, the eighteenth year of Guangzheng), Emperor Shizong Chai Rong launched a western campaign and recovered the four prefectures of Qin, Cheng, Jie, and Feng from Later Shu, sharply weakening the regime.

Fall: In the winter of 964 (the second year of Northern Song Qiande), Emperor Taizu of Song sent Wang Quanbin and Liu Guangyi to invade Shu along two routes. The main Song army broke through the strategic defenses at Jianmen, and Wang Zhaoyuan's forces collapsed and he was captured. Liu Guangyi's army, with Cao Bin serving as army supervisor, advanced upstream, captured Kuizhou, and took control of the Three Gorges approaches. On the seventh day of the first month of 965 (the third year of Qiande), Meng Chang surrendered to Song and Later Shu was destroyed. Meng Chang died in Kaifeng later that year, and all Later Shu territory was incorporated into Northern Song.

(Notes: The years in the stages above follow Chinese-era dates with Common Era years in parentheses. Details may be compared with the Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms, Old History of the Five Dynasties, New History of the Five Dynasties, History of Song, and Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance. Where the source indicates uncertainty, “one account” is retained.)

Politics and Institutions

Later Shu broadly inherited Tang and preceding regional institutions. At the center, the Grand Councilor, holding the title Joint Manager of Affairs with the Secretariat-Chancellery, directed government. The Six Ministries and other offices continued, while Military Affairs Commissioners handled sensitive affairs and Hanlin Academicians served as advisers. Zhao Jiliang, for example, served as Minister of Works and Participant in Determining Government Matters, Wang Chuhui as Military Affairs Commissioner, and Li Hao as Hanlin Academician. Local administration used prefectures and counties, with Chengdu serving as the capital region. The imperial examination system broadly followed Tang practice, alongside recruitment, hereditary privilege, and appointment by favor. The legal system largely continued earlier regional regulations with revisions, and supervisory institutions such as the Censorate remained. Because the historical record is limited, detailed official structures, selection procedures, and legal provisions cannot always be established securely; these are treated in the relevant person and institutional entries.

Military and Foreign Relations

Later Shu relied on the natural defenses of Sichuan and guarded strategic points such as Jiange and the Three Gorges against armies from the Central Plains. In its early years it incorporated surrendered Former Shu soldiers and former Later Tang troops and organized units such as the Yisheng, Dingyuan, Xiaorui, Yining, and Feizhao armies under commanders including Li Renhan, Zhao Tingyin, and Zhang Ye. Its forces at one point exceeded 70,000. Its foreign policy was generally defensive, first dealing with remnants of Later Tang power and frontier disputes and later confronting the growing unification pressure of Later Zhou and Northern Song. In 955, the Later Zhou western campaign seized the four prefectures of Qin, Cheng, Jie, and Feng. During the Northern Song invasion, Song armies advanced from Fengzhou and the Three Gorges in a coordinated attack. Wang Quanbin broke Jianmen, while Wang Zhaoyuan and Yi Shenzheng successively collapsed; Liu Guangyi took Kuimen, and the Later Shu defensive system disintegrated. Later Shu also sought mutual support with Northern Han and Southern Tang, but these efforts did not save the regime. Details of military organization and frontier fortifications are treated in the relevant entries.

Economy and Commerce

Sichuan had long been known as the “Land of Abundance,” supported by the Dujiangyan irrigation system and a strong agricultural base. In the earlier reigns of Meng Zhixiang and Meng Chang, policies of reducing labor burdens and taxes helped preserve relative stability, and Chengdu became a major regional economic center. Handicrafts such as silk weaving, especially Shu brocade, as well as salt production and papermaking were comparatively developed, while commerce remained active and state treasuries were well supplied. The historical record is limited regarding the details of currency circulation and commercial taxation; these are treated in the relevant entries.

Culture and Society

Cultural life in Sichuan was active under Later Shu. The source describes the Among the Flowers (Huajian ji) as having taken shape during the Qingtai era of Later Tang and also states that it was compiled in 940, the third year of Guangzheng, by Zhao Chongzuo, then Vice Director of the Court of Imperial Sacrifices. It was a literary compilation rather than an official court publication and collected five hundred lyrics by poets from Wen Tingyun through Ouyang Jiong, later becoming highly influential in the history of ci poetry. Meng Chang also ordered Wu Zhaoyi to supervise the engraving of the Shu Stone Classics, a project that continued over many years and included Confucian classics such as the Book of Changes, Book of Documents, and Book of Odes. In a relatively stable environment, the population was mainly Han Chinese, and Buddhism and Daoism were both widespread. More detailed discussion of intellectual life, Confucian, Buddhist, and Daoist culture, and social customs is provided in the relevant entries.

Rulers and Political Leadership

Meng Zhixiang, Meng Chang.

> This section explains the rulers' positions in the evolution of the regime; full biographies are provided in the corresponding person entries.

Historical Assessments and Legacy

Contemporary and later accounts described Sichuan during much of Later Shu as a peaceful refuge amid wider disorder. Later historians generally credit the Meng rulers' early policies of reducing burdens and preserving local stability, while criticizing the final ruler's later luxury, reliance on favorites, and neglect of frontier defense. In terms of historical legacy, Later Shu's long period of relative stability continued and developed Sichuan's economy and culture. Shu brocade and commercial traditions remained strong, while the Shu Stone Classics and Huajian ci poetry left important cultural legacies. The regime's territorial and urban development in the Chengdu-Chongqing region also formed part of the political geography inherited by Northern Song. The “contemporary” assessments mentioned above are largely preserved through later historical works rather than direct contemporary records.