Chu–Han Contention

Background

The four-year struggle between Xiang Yu and Liu Bang for the empire ended with Liu Bang's victory at the Battle of Gaixia and the establishment of the Western Han.

Course of Events

In 210 BCE, the thirty-seventh year of Qin Shi Huang, the First Emperor died at Shaqiu (northwest of present-day Guangzong, Hebei). Zhao Gao and other officials carried out the Shaqiu coup, forged an imperial order commanding the emperor's eldest son Fusu and the general Meng Tian to die, and installed the younger son Huhai as the Second Emperor. Qin Er Shi was described as incompetent and extravagant, while Zhao Gao monopolized power, disrupted government, increased taxation, and maintained heavy military and labor service. The empire deteriorated, and a decade of harsh rule culminated in the widespread rebellions at the end of the Qin dynasty.

In the seventh lunar month of 209 BCE, Chen Sheng and Wu Guang launched the Dazexiang Uprising and established the Zhangchu regime, with Chen Sheng proclaiming himself king of Chu. Armed movements quickly appeared across the empire. In the ninth lunar month, Xiang Liang and his nephew Xiang Yu, descendants of the former Chu general Xiang Yan, rose in Kuaiji, with Xiang Liang adopting the title Lord Wuxin. In the same month, Liu Bang, formerly head of a postal station in Sishui, rose at Pei County (present-day Pei County, Xuzhou, Jiangsu) and was called Duke of Pei.

After the failure of the Chen Sheng and Wu Guang uprising, Xiang Liang summoned leaders of the Chu rebel forces to Xue County (present-day Tengzhou, Zaozhuang, Shandong) in the second lunar month of 208 BCE. Liu Bang also joined him. Yan, Zhao, Qi, and Wei had already established their own kings. Following Fan Zeng's advice, Xiang Liang enthroned Xiong Xin, a descendant of the former King Huai of Chu, as king under the same title and established his capital at Xutai (present-day Xuyi, Jiangsu). In the eighth lunar month, Zhang Han, supreme Qin commander, defeated and killed anti-Qin leaders King Jiu of Wei and Tian Dan of Qi, then fought Xiang Liang at Dingtao. Xiang Liang was killed after underestimating the enemy. Zhang Han concluded that Chu no longer posed a serious threat and marched north against Zhao, besieging King Xie of Zhao at Julu (southwest of present-day Pingxiang, Hebei), where Zhao appealed to the other lords for aid.

The defeat of Xiang Liang shocked the Chu forces. Liu Bang and Xiang Yu abandoned Chenliu and led their armies east. In the tenth lunar month of the third year of Qin Er Shi (October–November 207 BCE, when the tenth month began the year), King Huai of Chu moved his capital to Pengcheng (present-day Xuzhou). He combined Xiang Yu's and Lü Chen's forces under his direct command, appointed Lü Chen's father Lü Qing as Grand Pillar of State, enfeoffed Liu Bang as Marquis of Wu'an and made him governor of Dang Commandery with command of its troops, and enfeoffed Xiang Yu as Marquis of Chang'an with the title Duke of Lu.

Chu then divided its forces. One army went north to relieve Zhao and another west against Qin. Song Yi was appointed supreme general with the title Champion of the Lords, Xiang Yu as second general, and Fan Zeng as last general, and they marched north. Liu Bang gathered scattered troops formerly under Xiang Liang and Chen Sheng and moved west. King Huai made an agreement with his generals that whoever first entered and pacified Guanzhong would become its king.

Before turning fully west, Liu Bang first moved north to collect dispersed Chen and Chu troops, numbering fewer than ten thousand. He captured several places around Luoyang and attempted but failed to take the city. He then moved south, defeated the governor of Nanyang Commandery, broke through Wuguan, and in the tenth month of the first Han year (October–November 207 BCE) reached the outskirts of Xianyang. He heavily defeated Qin forces at Lantian. Qin king Ziying surrendered, bringing the Qin dynasty to an end. Liu Bang entered Xianyang, abolished the harsh Qin laws, and made the “Three Articles of Law” agreement with the elders of Guanzhong.

In the twelfth month of the third year of Qin Er Shi, Xiang Yu killed Song Yi and seized command, marched north to relieve Zhao, and destroyed the main northern Qin frontier army under Wang Li at the Battle of Julu. He continued defeating Qin forces until Zhang Han surrendered. Xiang Yu became supreme commander of the feudal lords. In the twelfth month of the first Han year, he led the coalition army into Guanzhong and met Liu Bang at Hongmen in the episode known as the Banquet at Hongmen.

After the banquet, Xiang Yu sacked Xianyang, killed Qin king Ziying, burned the Qin palaces, and looted Guanzhong. Once the region was pacified, he asked the Righteous Emperor for authority to reward meritorious followers. King Huai replied that the original agreement should be followed. Xiang Yu ignored the order and made his own distribution. In the second lunar month of 206 BCE, he elevated King Huai as the Righteous Emperor, established eighteen feudal kingdoms, proclaimed himself Hegemon-King of Western Chu, and made Pengcheng his capital. Liu Bang was enfeoffed as King of Han and given Ba, Shu, and Hanzhong. Guanzhong was divided among the surrendered Qin generals Zhang Han, Sima Xin, and Dong Yi as the kingdoms of Yong, Sai, and Zhai, collectively called the Three Qins, in an effort to control Guanzhong and confine Liu Bang to Ba, Shu, and Hanzhong.

Liu Bang initially resented being sent to Hanzhong and considered attacking Xiang Yu. Xiao He advised him that Hanzhong possessed strategic terrain suitable for both advance and defense and that it could serve as a base for taking the empire. Liu Bang accepted the title King of Han, recruited talented men, and adopted a strategy of securing Ba and Shu, retaking the Three Qins, and then moving east to contend for the realm.

In the fourth lunar month of 206 BCE, Liu Bang reluctantly went to Hanzhong, whose commandery seat was Nanzheng, while Zhang Liang returned to Han to serve as its chancellor. On the road to Hanzhong, Liu Bang burned the plank roads behind him, both to prevent pursuit and to create the impression that he had no intention of returning east. Xiang Yu likewise returned to Pengcheng.

Han Xin left Chu and joined Liu Bang around this time but was initially unknown and held only a low military post. After he was sentenced to death for an offense, Lord Teng Xiahou Ying recognized his ability and saved him, later recommending him to Liu Bang. Liu Bang appointed Han Xin an official responsible for grain. Still dissatisfied, Han Xin attempted to leave. Xiao He pursued him by moonlight and again recommended him, after which Liu Bang appointed Han Xin General-in-Chief.

Within months of Xiang Yu's enfeoffments, the political situation became chaotic. Tian Rong of Qi, dissatisfied with the settlement, attacked Tian Du, King of Linzi, pursued and killed Tian Shi, King of Jiaodong, killed Tian An, King of Jibei, and made himself king of Qi. He gave Peng Yue a general's seal and ordered him to attack Chu. Chen Yu of Zhao, likewise dissatisfied, borrowed troops from Tian Rong and attacked Zhang Er, King of Changshan. Zhang Er fled and joined Han. Chen Yu restored King Xie of Dai as king of Zhao and made himself king of Dai. Zang Tu, whom Xiang Yu had made king of Yan, attacked and killed Han Guang, who refused to move to Liaodong. Rebellions in Qi and Zhao threatened Chu, and Xiang Yu decided to march north against Tian Rong.

In the eighth lunar month of 206 BCE, Liu Bang adopted Han Xin's plan and advanced through the old route to attack Zhang Han, king of Yong. Zhang Han blocked the route near the Wei River. Liu Bang considered withdrawing, but Zhao Yan proposed another road. Using it, the Han army reached Chencang, defeated Zhang Han, defeated him again at Haozhi, and finally besieged him at Feiqiu. In the same month, Sima Xin, king of Sai, and Dong Yi, king of Zhai, were forced to surrender to Liu Bang. Over the following months, Han generals seized Longxi, Beidi, and Shang commanderies. Apart from Zhang Han's besieged position at Feiqiu, the Three Qins had passed to Han.

In the first lunar month of 205 BCE, Xiang Yu learned that Liu Bang had absorbed the Three Qins and was preparing to advance east, while Zhao, Qi, and the Liang region were also in revolt. Because Qi and Liang were nearest and posed the greatest immediate threat, Xiang Yu marched north against Qi. He summoned Ying Bu to join him, but Ying Bu sent only weak and elderly troops, angering Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu defeated Tian Rong, who fled to Pingyuan and was killed by local inhabitants. The people of Qi then surrendered, but Xiang Yu carried out extensive killings among surrendered soldiers and civilians, provoking renewed rebellion. Tian Rong's younger brother Tian Heng installed Tian Rong's son Tian Guang as king of Qi, acted as chancellor, and resisted at Chengyang (present-day Ju County, Shandong). Xiang Yu was unable to take the position quickly.

Meanwhile Liu Bang advanced east. King Bao of Wei and King Ang of Yin surrendered to Han. In the fourth lunar month of 205 BCE, Liu Bang reached Luoyang and accepted Dong Gong's argument that troops needed a clear political justification. He used Xiang Yu's killing of the Righteous Emperor as grounds for a punitive campaign, held mourning rites for three days, issued proclamations throughout the empire, and gathered allied forces of Sai, Zhai, Wei, Zhao, and Yin totaling 560,000. They attacked Chu along two routes. Cao Can and Guan Ying led the northern force against Dingtao and defeated Long Ju and Xiang Ta. Liu Bang personally led the southern force, defeated Chu generals Cheng Chu and Wang Wu near Waihuang, and was joined by Peng Yue with 30,000 troops. The Han coalition captured Pengcheng.

Xiang Yu left his other commanders to continue operations in Qi and led 30,000 elite troops rapidly south. While Liu Bang and the allied lords relaxed after their victory, Xiang Yu circled west of Pengcheng and launched a surprise attack at dawn. The Han army collapsed and fled toward the Si River, pursued by Chu. More than 100,000 Han troops were reportedly killed during the pursuit. At the Sui River east of Lingbi, the fleeing Han troops crowded and trampled one another while the Chu army attacked, and more than 100,000 more fell into the river, reportedly blocking its flow. The source states that more than 200,000 Han troops were destroyed in the battle.

After Liu Bang's defeat, many lords returned to Xiang Yu. Liu Bang reached Xiayi, while his father Liu Taigong, his mother Lady Liu, and his wife Lü Zhi were captured by Chu. Zhang Liang proposed a new strategy, pointing to Ying Bu, Peng Yue, and Han Xin as the three figures who could be used against Chu. Liu Bang accepted the plan and sent Sui He to persuade Ying Bu, king of Jiujiang.

In the sixth lunar month of 205 BCE, Liu Bang returned to Guanzhong. Han forces flooded Feiqiu; after ten months of resistance, Zhang Han was defeated and killed himself, and the Three Qins were fully under Han control. Liu Bang recruited troops from Guanzhong and returned to Xingyang. Sui He persuaded Ying Bu to defect from Chu. Xiang Yu sent Long Ju and Xiang Sheng against Ying Bu and personally moved west toward Xingyang. Liu Bang defeated Xiang Yu east of Xingyang and again defeated the Chu army between Jing County and Suoting, pushing it back east of Xingyang. After the Battle of Jingsuo, Han stabilized its position, while Chu was unable to break through toward Guanzhong. The war entered a prolonged stalemate around Xingyang and Chenggao.

After the Battle of Jingsuo, Chu and Han faced each other near Xingyang. Liu Bang sent Li Yiji to persuade King Bao of Wei to return to Han, but Bao refused. In the eighth lunar month of the second Han year, Liu Bang sent Cao Can and Han Xin by separate routes against Wei. They captured Anyi that same month, and Cao Can captured Wei Bao and took him to Xingyang. In the ninth lunar month, Liu Bang sent Chen Xi, Han Xin, and Cao Can against Dai. They pacified the state and killed its chancellor Xia Yue.

In the tenth month of the third Han year, Liu Bang sent the former king of Changshan, Zhang Er, with Han Xin to recover Zhao territory. They arrayed their forces at Jingxing. King Xie of Zhao concentrated the Zhao army in the north to resist. Han Xin formed his famous battle line with the troops' backs to the river and inflicted a major defeat, killing Chen Yu and capturing King Xie. He then accepted Li Zuoche's advice and induced Yan to surrender without battle.

In 204 BCE, Liu Bang was besieged by Xiang Yu at Xingyang and faced a critical situation. Liu Bang and Chen Ping used a counterintelligence plan to make Xiang Yu suspicious of Fan Zeng, Zhongli Mo, and others. Fan Zeng left in anger and died of illness on the road. Liu Bang escaped Xingyang, returned to Guanzhong to recruit troops, then emerged through Wuguan to draw Xiang Yu south. Xiang Yu followed, while Liu Bang held fortified positions and refused battle. Meanwhile Peng Yue repeatedly attacked Chu's rear areas in Liang and cut supply lines. Xiang Yu was forced to turn back against Peng Yue, leaving Grand Marshal Cao Jiu to defend Chenggao. Liu Bang then captured Chenggao; Cao Jiu was defeated and killed himself. Xiang Yu returned and confronted Liu Bang at Guangwu. Xiang Yu threatened to boil Liu Taigong alive. Liu Bang replied that he and Xiang Yu had once received orders from King Huai together and agreed to be brothers, so Liu Bang's father was also Xiang Yu's father, and if Xiang Yu insisted on boiling him, Liu Bang hoped to receive a share of the broth. Xiang Yu shot and wounded Liu Bang, who continued to hold his position.

In 203 BCE, Han Xin pacified Qi and proclaimed himself acting king of Qi. After prompting from Zhang Liang and Chen Ping, Liu Bang formally made him king of Qi. Xiang Yu sent Long Ju with 200,000 troops against Han Xin. Han Xin defeated the Chu army at the Wei River and killed Long Ju. Han Xin now controlled Wei, Dai, Zhao, Yan, and Qi, completing a strategic encirclement of Chu.

In the eighth lunar month of 203 BCE, Xiang Yu's troops were exhausted and short of food, while Han Xin, Peng Yue, and other Han forces threatened to converge. Xiang Yu therefore negotiated peace with Liu Bang. They agreed to divide the empire along the Hong Canal, with the west belonging to Han and the east to Chu. Xiang Yu returned Liu Taigong, Lü Zhi, and other hostages and led his army east.

Zhang Liang and Chen Ping urged Liu Bang to pursue, and he agreed. In the tenth month of the fifth Han year, 202 BCE, Liu Bang followed Xiang Yu to Yangxia and arranged for Han Xin and Peng Yue to join him, but they did not move. Xiang Yu defeated Liu Bang at Guling. Following Zhang Liang's advice, Liu Bang promised territories to Han Xin and Peng Yue. In the twelfth month, Han Xin, Peng Yue, Ying Bu, and other armies converged and fought Xiang Yu at Gaixia (southeast of present-day Lingbi County, Anhui).

Han Xin led 300,000 Han troops in the center, with General Kong and General Fei commanding the left and right wings. Han Xin first engaged Xiang Yu, feigned defeat, and withdrew. When Xiang Yu pursued, the wings attacked from both sides and the Chu army suffered a major defeat. Xiang Yu retreated into his camp. Hearing Chu songs from every direction at night, he believed that Han had already conquered all of Chu. He broke out with more than eight hundred cavalry and fled south. At Yinling he lost his way. A farmer directed him left, where he entered marshland. By the time he reached Dongcheng, only twenty-eight riders remained. Xiang Yu told them that Heaven was destroying him and that his defeat was not due to faulty generalship. He charged the Han lines with the twenty-eight riders and killed several hundred soldiers.

At the Wu River, the local pavilion chief offered to ferry Xiang Yu across. Xiang Yu refused, saying he had no face to meet the elders of Jiangdong. He gave his horse, Wuzhui, to the pavilion chief, dismounted, fought on foot, killed hundreds more Han soldiers, suffered more than ten wounds, and finally cut his own throat.

In the first lunar month of the fifth Han year, 202 BCE, Liu Bang assumed the imperial title north of the Si River and established the Western Han, becoming Emperor Gaozu of Han. The Chu–Han Contention ended in Liu Bang's victory.

Results and Impact

The four-year struggle between Xiang Yu and Liu Bang for the empire ended with Liu Bang's victory at the Battle of Gaixia and the establishment of the Western Han.

The war altered the balance of power, territorial control, and strategic deployments among the forces involved in the early Western Han and affected subsequent military developments.