Zhang Han

Biography

Family background and early years

Historical sources give very little information about Zhang Han's family background or early life. He was active during the reign of the Second Emperor of Qin and held the office of Chamberlain for the Palace Revenues, one of the Nine Chamberlains, responsible for revenues from mountains, seas, ponds, and marshes and thus a high-ranking official of the Qin court. Sima Qian refers to him in the "Basic Annals of Qin Shi Huang" and the "Basic Annals of Xiang Yu" in the *Records of the Grand Historian* simply as "Zhang Han, Chamberlain for the Palace Revenues," without recording his native place, family, or earlier career.

Because he was able, as one of the Nine Chamberlains, to address the Second Emperor directly in court, Zhang Han was evidently already serving in the central government after Qin unified the six states and possessed considerable military and administrative ability. Qin government emphasized Legalist administration and military merit. Zhang Han's high office may suggest earlier participation in the wars of unification or a background as a legal-administrative official with military competence, but his activities are documented chiefly in the final years of Qin and his earlier career cannot now be established.

Command in crisis and victories over the eastern uprisings

In the seventh month of 209 BCE, the first year of the Second Emperor, Chen Sheng and Wu Guang rose in revolt at Dazexiang, and the anti-Qin movement spread rapidly through the regions east of the passes. Chen Sheng proclaimed himself king under the name Zhangchu and sent his general Zhou Zhang with the main army westward toward Guanzhong. As Zhou Zhang's force absorbed displaced people along the way, it reportedly grew to a thousand chariots and several hundred thousand soldiers by the time it reached the Xi River, little more than a hundred li from Xianyang.

The Second Emperor, Hu Hai, was alarmed and urgently summoned his ministers to discuss a response. Zhang Han advised that the enemy had already arrived in great strength and that troops could not be raised from nearby counties in time. Because there were many convicts laboring at Mount Li, he proposed pardoning them, arming them, and sending them against the rebels.

The Second Emperor accepted the proposal, issued a broad pardon, and appointed Zhang Han as general over the hastily assembled convict army. Zhang Han won his first engagement, driving Zhou Zhang out of Guanzhong. He pursued and defeated Zhou again at Caoyang and Mianchi, after which Zhou Zhang, with no route of escape, killed himself. The victory gave the Qin court time to recover and made Zhang Han the principal Qin field commander in the dynasty's final wars. The Second Emperor also sent Chief Clerk Sima Xin and Commandant Dong Yi to assist Zhang Han, and the three subsequently campaigned together for an extended period.

Zhang Han then drove east, defeating forces under Deng Yue, Wu Xu, and others. In the twelfth month of 208 BCE, the second year of the Second Emperor, Chen Sheng retreated to Chengfu and was killed by his charioteer Zhuang Jia, bringing the Zhangchu regime to an end. Zhang Han then attacked Wei, where King Wei Jiu was trapped at Linji. He defeated the Qi forces that came to Wei's aid, and the Qi king Tian Dan was killed. Wei Jiu surrendered on the condition that the Qin army spare the city and then burned himself to death.

Zhang Han next fought repeatedly against the main Chu force led by Xiang Liang. Xiang Liang initially won, forcing Zhang Han to withdraw to Dingtao. Encouraged by repeated victories, however, Xiang Liang became overconfident. The Second Emperor sent reinforcements to Zhang Han, and in the ninth month Zhang Han crushed the Chu army at Dingtao, where Xiang Liang was killed. This became an important turning point in the wars at the end of Qin. The main Chu force was devastated, and the anti-Qin movement temporarily entered a period of crisis.

Defeat at Julu and surrender to Chu

After Xiang Liang's death, the Qin court concluded that Chu no longer posed a major threat. Zhang Han crossed the Yellow River and advanced north against Zhao. He defeated Zhao forces, captured Handan, and besieged King Zhao Xie at Julu. Zhao appealed for aid, and King Huai of Chu sent Song Yi and Xiang Yu north.

In the twelfth month of 207 BCE, the third year of the Second Emperor, Xiang Yu fought the Battle of Julu. Breaking his cooking pots and sinking his boats, he won repeated engagements and crushed the Qin main force under Wang Li. Su Jiao was killed and Wang Li captured. Zhang Han withdrew to Jiyuan and confronted Xiang Yu's army there.

Zhang Han now faced pressure from both outside and within. Xiang Yu pressed his advantage and repeatedly defeated Zhang Han's forces, while Zhao Gao's domination of the court brought increasing suspicion. Zhang Han sent Chief Clerk Sima Xin to Xianyang to seek assistance. Sima Xin waited outside the palace for three days, but Zhao Gao refused to receive him. Realizing the danger, Sima Xin returned to the army by a circuitous route and warned Zhang Han that Zhao Gao controlled affairs at court and left subordinates no room to act: if Zhang Han won, Zhao Gao would be jealous of his success; if he lost, he would not escape death. Xiang Yu meanwhile sent General Pu and others to defeat Qin troops at Sanhu Ford and Wushui. Zhang Han's forces suffered repeated losses and ran short of provisions.

In the seventh month, after repeated deliberation, Zhang Han surrendered to Xiang Yu at Yinxu together with Sima Xin, Dong Yi, and 200,000 Qin troops. Xiang Yu remembered that Zhang Han had defeated and killed Xiang Liang, but the Qin army still possessed substantial strength. He therefore reached an agreement with Zhang Han and privately promised to make him King of Yong. In the twelfth month of 207 BCE, Xiang Yu divided the realm and enfeoffed Zhang Han as King of Yong, ruling the territory west of Xianyang from Feiqiu. Sima Xin became King of Sai and Dong Yi King of Di. Together the three divided Guanzhong and became known as the Three Qins. Xiang Yu intended them to block Liu Bang's route out of the west.

Defeat in Guanzhong and suicide

In the eighth month of 206 BCE, the first year of the King of Han, Liu Bang used a plan attributed to Han Xin and advanced by way of Chencang into Guanzhong. Zhang Han met the attack in haste but suffered successive defeats at Chencang, Haozhi, and elsewhere before withdrawing to Feiqiu. Sima Xin and Dong Yi surrendered to Han in succession, leaving Zhang Han isolated in the city. Han troops besieged Feiqiu for several months without taking it.

In the sixth month of 205 BCE, the second year of the King of Han, Han forces diverted the Wei River to flood the city. Feiqiu fell. Zhang Han was captured and, refusing to submit, killed himself. His younger brother Zhang Ping had already been captured by Han forces.

Major Activities

Formation of the convict army

At a moment of acute crisis for the Qin court, Zhang Han proposed pardoning the convicts laboring at Mount Li and forming them into an army, then personally took command. Although hastily assembled, this army proved effective under his leadership and became the principal Qin force in the final years of the dynasty. The measure checked the rebel advance for a short period and allowed the Qin government to survive for nearly two more years.

Defeat of anti-Qin forces

During his campaigns Zhang Han successively defeated forces under Zhou Zhang, Deng Yue, Wu Xu, Chen Sheng, Wei Jiu, Tian Dan, Xiang Liang, and others. The victory at Dingtao, where Xiang Liang was killed, was among the most consequential Qin successes of the period. Xiang Liang's death left the Chu movement temporarily without its principal leader. Without the subsequent rise of Xiang Yu, Liu Bang, and others, the anti-Qin cause might have been severely disrupted. Zhang Han's military ability was fully displayed in this phase. His campaigning was steady and he was effective at exploiting opportunities, making him one of the Qin commanders most feared by the insurgents.

Battle of Julu and surrender to Xiang Yu

The Battle of Julu was the turning point in Zhang Han's military career. The Qin main force under Wang Li was destroyed by Xiang Yu. Zhang Han did not personally command that force in the decisive fighting, but as the overall Qin commander in the region, his strategic position collapsed. For months afterward he confronted Xiang Yu and suffered repeated setbacks. With Zhao Gao undermining him from the rear, he ultimately chose to surrender. Zhang Han's surrender deprived the Qin court of its last major field army and accelerated the dynasty's collapse.

King of Yong and the Three Qins

When Xiang Yu divided the realm, Zhang Han was made King of Yong, while Sima Xin and Dong Yi shared Guanzhong with him. The arrangement was intended as a barrier against Liu Bang. Zhang Han attempted to consolidate his position at Feiqiu, but once Liu Bang advanced into Guanzhong, the Three Qins collapsed quickly. Zhang Han held Feiqiu for close to a year, but the city eventually fell and he died, making him one of the earliest regional kings eliminated in the Chu–Han conflict.

Personal Relations

Ruler and court

Hu Hai, the Second Emperor of Qin: Zhang Han's ruler. Zhang Han received command in a crisis and fought for the Qin court, but the emperor's misgovernment and Zhao Gao's dominance left the front without effective support and ultimately contributed to Zhang Han's surrender.

Zhao Gao: powerful Qin court official. Zhao Gao suspected Zhang Han, refused meaningful assistance, and made Sima Xin fear for his life after he came to the capital seeking support. Zhao Gao's conduct was an important factor in pushing Zhang Han toward surrender.

Colleagues

Sima Xin: Qin chief clerk and Zhang Han's subordinate; later surrendered with him to Chu and was made King of Sai. His mission to Xianyang gave Zhang Han crucial warning that Zhao Gao could not be trusted.

Dong Yi: Qin commandant and Zhang Han's subordinate; later surrendered with him to Chu and was made King of Di.

Adversaries

Xiang Yu: commander of the Chu forces. After the Battle of Julu he confronted Zhang Han and eventually accepted his surrender, later making him King of Yong. Zhang Han was not killed directly by Xiang Yu, but the Three Qins settlement established by Xiang Yu made him Liu Bang's immediate opponent.

Liu Bang: King of Han. He advanced through Chencang, defeated Zhang Han in the Campaign of the Three Qins, and ultimately forced him to suicide.

Xiang Liang: early leader of the Chu forces, killed by Zhang Han at Dingtao.

Chen Sheng: leader of the Zhangchu regime and one of Zhang Han's principal opponents in the eastern campaigns; he was eventually driven to Chengfu and killed by a subordinate.

Family

Zhang Ping: Zhang Han's younger brother, captured by Han forces in 206 BCE.

Historical Assessment

Late Qin and early Han period

The "Basic Annals of Qin Shi Huang" in the *Records of the Grand Historian* records Zhang Han's proposal to pardon the Mount Li convicts. Sima Qian offers no direct judgment there, but the placement of the episode among the decisive events of Qin's final years reflects Zhang Han's importance in court decision-making.

The "Basic Annals of Xiang Yu" records Xiang Yu's handling of Zhang Han. Because Zhang Han had killed Xiang Liang, Xiang Yu at one point considered killing him, but he was eventually persuaded otherwise and made Zhang Han King of Yong. The episode reflects the degree to which contemporaries took Zhang Han's military ability seriously.

Han period

Sima Qian's *Records of the Grand Historian* recounts Zhang Han's military record without disparaging his ability, while narrating in a relatively restrained manner his surrender to Xiang Yu and rapid defeat after becoming King of Yong. The account has also been read as implying criticism of his failure to die in Qin service.

Ban Gu's *Book of Han* largely follows the account in the *Records of the Grand Historian* and offers no distinctive separate judgment.

Song and Yuan periods

Sima Guang's *Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance* gives a detailed account of Zhang Han's career. It recognizes his ability to respond to the crisis and temporarily stabilize the Qin position, while treating his eventual surrender to Xiang Yu as a course forced in significant part by Zhao Gao's pressure.

Su Zhe, writing on the end of Qin in the *Luancheng Ji*, argued that although Zhang Han was capable in war, Qin's harsh laws and Zhao Gao's dominance meant that his defeat was not simply a failure of battlefield ability but the result of the court destroying its own defenses.

Ming and Qing periods

Wang Fuzhi, in *Du Tongjian Lun*, argued that Zhang Han could win for a time with an army of convicts, but that Qin had lost popular support and such victories could not last. Regarding Zhang Han's surrender to Xiang Yu, Wang suggested that the desire to preserve Qin soldiers offered some grounds for understanding his decision.

Modern period

Lü Simian, in his history of the Qin and Han, wrote that Zhang Han's convict army was the only force at the end of Qin capable of effectively resisting the uprisings and that its collapse marked the destruction of Qin military power.

Qian Mu likewise attributed Zhang Han's surrender to Xiang Yu to Zhao Gao's domination of the Qin court and the breakdown of trust between ruler and minister. Zhang Han's individual ability, in this view, could not reverse the broader collapse of Qin.