He Qi

Biography

Family Background and Early Years He Qi's family originally bore the surname Qing and belonged to the elite families of Kuaiji Commandery. His uncle Qing Chun was highly regarded in Confucian circles and under Emperor An of Han served as Palace Attendant and administrator of Jiangxia; he was later summoned to court together with Huang Qiong and Yang Hou. To avoid the personal name of Emperor An's father, posthumously honored as Emperor Xiaode, the Qing family changed its surname to He. As a young man, He Qi served as a Kuaiji commandery clerk and later acted as magistrate of Shan County. A county clerk named Si Cong was notorious for reckless and lawless behavior. When He Qi sought to punish him, the chief clerk warned that Si belonged to a powerful local clan and that Shanyue people depended on him; punishing him would provoke immediate armed retaliation. He Qi became angry and executed Si Cong at once. Si Cong's clansmen and followers then assembled more than a thousand men and attacked the county seat. He Qi led officials and commoners in a sortie through the opened gates and decisively defeated them, gaining a formidable reputation among the Shanyue. When rebellions later broke out at Taimo and Fengpu, He Qi was transferred to serve as magistrate of Taimo. By punishing the violent and supporting the law-abiding, he pacified the disturbances within a month. ### Rise to Prominence In 196, the first year of the Jian'an era, Sun Ce reached Taimo while touring Jiangdong and, after observing He Qi, recommended him as a Filial and Incorrupt candidate. At the time Wang Lang had fled to Dongye, while Shang Sheng, magistrate of Houguan, raised troops in Wang's support against Sun Ce. Sun Ce first sent Han Yan, magistrate of Yongning, as Commandant of the Southern Division to attack Shang Sheng and appointed He Qi to replace Han as magistrate of Yongning. After Shang Sheng defeated Han Yan, Sun Ce appointed He Qi Commandant of the Southern Division and sent him to continue the campaign. Fearing He's reputation, Shang Sheng dispatched an envoy seeking an agreement. He Qi explained the consequences of resistance, and Shang surrendered his seal of office. Rebel leaders Zhang Ya and Zhan Qiang, however, opposed surrender, killed Shang Sheng, and declared themselves respectively “Supreme General” and administrator of Kuaiji. Outnumbered, He Qi halted to rest his troops and exploited a struggle for power between Zhang Ya and Zhang's son-in-law He Xiong. He had Shanyue intermediaries sow suspicion between them until each held troops against the other. He then attacked, defeated Zhang Ya in a single battle, and frightened Zhan Qiang's followers into surrender. After the campaign, the Han government formally established Jian'an, Hanxing, and Nanping counties in the Fujian region, and He Qi was the official responsible for implementing their establishment. ### Pacifying the Shanyue After Sun Ce died in 200, Shanyue groups in Jian'an and neighboring counties rebelled during the transition of leadership within the Sun regime. In 203, powerful local leaders Hong Ming, Hong Jin, Yuan Yu, Wu Mian, and Hua Dang rose in southern Kuaiji. Each of the five leaders commanded more than ten thousand people around Hanxing, while Wu Wu held Datan with six thousand and Zou Lin held Gaizhu with another six thousand. Sun Quan ordered He Qi, then Commandant of the Southern Division, to suppress the revolt and directed each county to provide five thousand troops under its magistrate, all placed under He's command. He judged that his own forces were too few relative to the rebels and that a deep advance without secure support risked being cut off, so he ordered Ding Fan, magistrate of Songyang, to remain behind to guard Yuhan. Ding Fan considered himself formerly equal in rank to He and refused to submit to his command. He Qi had Ding executed, shocking the army into obedience. He then divided off a garrison force and personally led the main army forward. He defeated the rebel forces in succession, killed Hong Ming in battle, forced Hong Jin, Wu Mian, Yuan Yu, and Hua Dang to surrender, and then attacked Gaizhu and Datan, compelling Wu Wu and Zou Lin to submit. The campaign killed six thousand Shanyue fighters, captured the rebel leaders, and incorporated more than ten thousand picked troops. He Qi was appointed Colonel Who Pacifies the East and established the headquarters of the southern commandant of Kuaiji at Qishan. In 205 he campaigned against Shangrao and separated Tongxiang territory from Jian'an to establish Jianping County. ### Capture of Linli Mountain In 208 He Qi was promoted to General of the Household of Majestic Martiality and joined Jiang Qin with ten thousand troops to attack Yi and She counties in Danyang Commandery. Jin Qi of She led ten thousand households at Anle Mountain, Mao Gan led another ten thousand at Wuliao Mountain, and Chen Pu and Zu Shan of Yi commanded twenty thousand households at Linli Mountain. Linli Mountain was surrounded by sheer cliffs dozens of zhang high, with narrow paths passable by only one person at a time. Rebels rolled stones down from above and the Wu army could not break through. He Qi personally reconnoitered the terrain, chose a concealed route the Shanyue had left unguarded, and secretly recruited agile soldiers. They cut footholds into the rock with iron weapons and climbed by night, then lowered cloth to pull up others. Once more than a hundred men had reached the heights they deployed on several sides and sounded drums and horns together. Hearing the noise all around at night, the Shanyue believed a large force had already reached the summit. In panic they abandoned the narrow mountain paths and retreated to their main camp. The Wu army then climbed to the top and attacked, destroying the forces of Chen Pu and Zu Shan and taking seven thousand heads; Jin Qi and Mao Gan surrendered. The source presents the action as an outstanding example of ancient Chinese mountain assault tactics. After pacifying Yi and She, He Qi memorialized that She County be divided into Xinding, Liyang, and Xiuyang. Together with Yi, She, and Shixin, these six counties were organized as Xindu Commandery. Sun Quan appointed He Qi its administrator, established the commandery seat at Shixin, and additionally made him General of the Flank. In 209 He Qi built the city of Xindu at the foot of Lingyan Mountain, later known as Hecheng. ### Repeated Suppression of Rebellions In 211, Lang Zhi of Yuhang in Wu Commandery gathered his clan and rebelled with several thousand followers. He Qi suppressed the revolt and memorialized to divide Yuhang and create Linshui County. Ordered to return to Shixin, the commandery seat, He was personally given a farewell banquet by Sun Quan, who arranged music and dancing, bestowed carriages and horses, and had He ride in the ruler's own carriage while officials and cavalry cleared the road before him in the ceremonial style used for commandery officials. Looking on, Sun Quan laughed and said, “A man must strive; without accumulated conduct and long labor, this cannot be obtained.” In 213, Peng Cai, Li Yu, Wang Hai, and others in eastern Yuzhang raised more than ten thousand people in revolt. He Qi defeated them, executed the principal leaders, accepted the surrender of the rest, selected the strongest for military service, and registered the remainder as county households. He was promoted to General Who Displays Martial Valor. In 216, You Tu of Poyang rebelled after receiving seals from Cao Cao, and the Danyang rebel leader Fei Zhan likewise accepted Cao Cao's commission and acted as an internal ally. Lingyang, Shi'an, and Jing counties joined them. He Qi and Lu Xun attacked on separate fronts. He decisively defeated You Tu, took several thousand heads, and compelled three Danyang counties to surrender, gaining eight thousand picked soldiers. He was appointed General Who Pacifies the East, enfeoffed as Marquis of Shanyin, and stationed to guard the Yangzi waterways from Fuzhou upstream to Wancheng. ### The Hefei Campaign and Final Years In 215 He Qi accompanied Sun Quan on the campaign against Hefei. The Wei general Zhang Liao led eight hundred men in a sudden assault directly toward Sun Quan's position. Xu Sheng was wounded and lost his standard; He Qi led troops to resist the attack and recovered the spear Xu Sheng had lost. During Sun Quan's withdrawal, Zhang Liao attacked again north of Xiaoyao Ford and nearly trapped him. He Qi came to the southern bank with three thousand soldiers. Sun Quan spurred his horse over a damaged bridge, and the pursuers, seeing He Qi's force already positioned on the southern side, did not attempt the jump, allowing Sun Quan to escape. Once aboard a ship, Sun Quan held a banquet. He Qi left his seat in tears and remonstrated: “As the supreme ruler, Your Highness should always act with caution. Today's affair came close to disaster; your subordinates were shaken as if heaven and earth had vanished. I beg that you take this as a lifelong warning.” Sun Quan personally wiped away his tears and replied that he was deeply ashamed and would remember the lesson in his heart, not merely write it on his sash. In 222, the first year of the Huangwu era, Cao Pi launched a three-pronged attack on Wu and Cao Xiu attacked Dongkou. Because of the distance, He Qi arrived later and stationed at Xinshi. A violent storm had drowned more than half the troops under other commanders in Lü Fan's force, but He's army arrived later and remained intact. The disciplined appearance and equipment of his troops intimidated Cao Xiu and his officers, who withdrew. He Qi was promoted to General of the Rear and granted the designation Acting with the Imperial Tally, while concurrently holding the title Governor of Xuzhou. In 223, soon after the three-front war, Sun Quan exploited the summer season to send He Qi in a surprise operation. He commanded Mi Fang, Xianyu Dan, and Hu Zong in an attack on Qichun and captured the rebel Jin Zong alive. He Qi died in 227.

He Qi was a native of Shanyin in Kuaiji and served in the commandery in his early years. Officials of the county were then given to violent mischief and He Qi wished to punish one of them, but the man had connections above and nothing came of it; he afterward obtained the magistracy of Shanxian through recommendation, and on taking office had the man dealt with according to law, the county's order improving as a result. The episode gave him a name in the commandery.

He went on to win repeated merit in the Sun house's administration of Jiangdong, putting down the hill peoples and local forces about Danyang and Kuaiji and taking part in the campaigns against the Shanyue and in the Yi and She districts. Strict in his command, he distributed his rewards among his troops and attended to reassuring the people wherever he went, gaining a good name among the generals of Wu. He held the offices of governor of Xindu, general of the martial guard and general of the rear, one of the chief commanders in Wu's early management of the Jiangdong hills.

That management, the so-called pacification of the Shanyue, was an important part of the state's founding, and his activity there helped Wu extend its control over the hill peoples and increase its soldiers and households.

His campaigns centered on the highlands of what are now Zhejiang, Anhui and Jiangxi.

His standing in the Sun group rests chiefly on merit won in reducing the Shanyue.

His manner of command and treatment of others earned him a good name among the generals of Wu.

The pacification of the Shanyue went on for decades, combining military campaigns with conciliation and registration. He Qi's operations belong chiefly to the phase in which Sun Ce and Sun Quan first secured Jiangdong, their results supplying Wu with large numbers of soldiers and taxable households.

That he distributed his rewards among his troops and reassured the people wherever he went shows that Wu's administration of Jiangdong did not rest on force alone. The practice was fairly common among its commanders and is one reason the regime could establish itself there.

His career is a concrete facet of the Sun house's administration of Jiangdong.

His campaigns worked with the administrative measures that followed, making Wu's control of the highlands progressively institutional.

His name among the Wu commanders rests chiefly on his record in suppressing revolts and in commanding troops. Wu's local government and the opening of the highlands are closely tied to the activity of commanders like him, their experience shaping the policy of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties toward the hills of Jiangnan.

In 196, when Sun Ce came to Kuaiji, he made He Qi a filial and incorrupt candidate. Wang Lang had fled to Dongye and the headman of Houguan, Shang Sheng, rose in arms for him; Sun Ce sent Han Yan, headman of Yongning and acting commandant of the south, against him with He Qi as headman of Yongning. Han Yan was defeated, and He Qi took over the command, leading troops into Fujian. Shang Sheng, fearing his reputation, sent envoys to ask for a pact; He Qi set out the gains and losses for him, and Shang Sheng surrendered his seals and came out of his residence to submit. The rebel chiefs Zhang Ya and Zhan Qiang, unwilling to submit, killed Shang Sheng instead, Zhang Ya styling himself general of the supreme, Zhan Qiang governor of Kuaiji. With the rebels numerous and his own force small, He Qi halted and rested his troops; observing that Zhang Ya and his son-in-law He Xiong were at odds over power, he had the Yue people stir the quarrel until the two distrusted each other and faced off with their own troops, then attacked and routed Zhang Ya in a single battle, whereupon Zhan Qiang's followers, terrified, came out and surrendered.

When Sun Ce died in 200, and while the Sun regime was changing hands at the center, the strong clans of Jian'an and the neighboring counties rose again: the chiefs Hong Ming, Hong Jin, Yuan Yu, Wu Mian and Hua Dang each held more than ten thousand men in echelon, while Wu Wu and Zou Lin held Datan and Gaizhu with six thousand each, and they struck first at Yugan and Hanxing. Sun Quan ordered He Qi, commandant of the south, against them, with orders that each county send five thousand men under its magistrate to his command. Seeing the Yue numbers and his own inferiority, He Qi halted at Yugan rather than drive deeper, and ordered Ding Fan, headman of Songyang, to remain there with his troops; Ding Fan, who thought himself formerly He Qi's equal and would not take orders, was beheaded for it under military law, and the whole army, shaken, obeyed. Leaving part of his force in the rear, He Qi led his main body to defeat Hong Ming and his fellows again and again, killed Hong Ming in the field and brought Hong Jin, Wu Mian, Yuan Yu and Hua Dang to surrender; pressing on he beat Wu Wu at Gaizhu and then the Yue army at Datan, and Wu Wu and Zou Lin submitted in turn. He Qi was the man who actually carried out Sun Wu's opening of the old Min-Yue lands and the establishment of Jian'an and its companion counties; known for strict discipline in command, he combined force with intrigue in dealing with the Yue, and was a dependable general for Sun Quan in securing the Jiangdong rear.

Major Activities

Campaigns against the Shanyue He Qi's principal military achievement lay in suppressing Shanyue resistance within Jiangdong. From the campaign against Shang Sheng and Zhang Ya in 196 to the defeat of You Tu and Fei Zhan in 216, he fought Shanyue forces for two decades. He successively suppressed large uprisings in southern Kuaiji, Yi and She in Danyang, eastern Yuzhang, Poyang, and other regions, killing many thousands and incorporating tens of thousands of soldiers. He adapted his tactics to terrain and circumstance: he exploited the rivalry between Zhang Ya and He Xiong through deliberate provocation; at Linli Mountain he organized a night climb up cliffs; and against a Shanyue leader reputed to use magical prohibitions he had wooden clubs without iron blades made to counter the belief in those techniques. He also emphasized postwar administration, establishing counties, restoring local registration, incorporating strong surrendered Shanyue men into the army, and registering the elderly and weaker as ordinary households. This both reduced the base for further rebellion and supplied Sun Wu with substantial manpower. ### Establishment of Commanderies and Counties During his campaigns He Qi repeatedly proposed new administrative units and made a significant contribution to local government structures in the south. After pacifying Dongye in 196, he participated in the creation of Jian'an, Hanxing, and Nanping counties, the first formal Han county establishments in the Fujian region. In 205, territory at Tongxiang was separated from Jian'an to create Jianping County. In 208, he proposed separating Yexiang in eastern She to create Shixin County, regarded as the beginning of county administration in later Chun'an. He then divided She into Xinding, Liyang, and Xiuyang and, together with Yi, She, and Shixin, formed Xindu Commandery, of which he became the first administrator. In 209 he built the commandery city at the foot of Lingyan Mountain, known as Hecheng, and moved the administrative center there. In 211 he separated territory from Yuhang to establish Linshui County. These changes helped shape the later administrative geography of parts of Zhejiang, Anhui, and Fujian. ### Rescue during the Battle of Xiaoyao Ford In 215, during Sun Quan's campaign against Hefei, Zhang Liao led eight hundred elite troops in a sudden assault on the Wu army, directly threatening Sun Quan. The Wu commanders were unprepared; Chen Wu was killed and Song Qian and Xu Sheng were driven back. He Qi led troops in resistance and recovered Xu Sheng's lost spear. During Sun Quan's withdrawal, Zhang Liao attacked again north of Xiaoyao Ford. He Qi arrived on the southern bank with three thousand men. The bridge had already been damaged, but Sun Quan leapt his horse across the gap. Seeing He Qi's force on the far bank, the pursuers did not attempt the crossing, and Sun Quan escaped. He Qi then tearfully remonstrated with Sun Quan and urged him to treat the danger as a lifelong warning. The episode illustrates both He's loyalty at a critical moment and his willingness to remonstrate directly with his ruler. ### Military Display against Cao Xiu In 222 Cao Xiu led Wei forces against Dongkou. He Qi arrived late because of the distance and camped at Xinshi. He was personally fond of luxurious and splendid display, especially in military equipment. His weapons, armor, and equipment were of exceptional quality; his ships were carved and painted red, equipped with blue-feathered canopies and crimson curtains, while shields, halberds, bows, and crossbows were richly decorated and made of selected materials. From a distance his assault boats and warships appeared like a continuous range of mountains. Cao Xiu and his officers were wary of the disciplined and imposing display and withdrew. At the time, more than half of the troops under other commanders in Lü Fan's force had drowned in a storm, and morale was low; He's force, arriving later and avoiding the disaster, remained intact and helped stabilize the situation. When someone accused Lü Fan and He Qi of clothing and equipment so extravagant as to verge on royal usurpation, Sun Quan cited Duke Huan of Qi's tolerance of Guan Zhong's ritual excesses, arguing that the two commanders merely valued fine equipment and orderly vehicles and ships, which strengthened military appearance without harming discipline. The accuser did not raise the matter again.

Personal Relations

• He Da: son; reputed for his abilities and regarded as a capable general
• He Jing: son; reputed for his abilities and regarded as a capable general ### Ruler–Subject Relations - Sun Ce: recommended He Qi as a Filial and Incorrupt candidate and brought him into the Sun regime
• Sun Quan: He's principal ruler; trusted him greatly, personally held a farewell banquet for him, had him ride in the imperial carriage, and defended his luxurious military display ### Colleagues - Jiang Qin: campaigned with He in Yi and She in 208
• Lu Xun: campaigned with He against You Tu and Fei Zhan in 216
• Lü Fan: another senior Sun Wu officer, likewise noted for luxurious attire
• Xu Sheng: He recovered his lost spear during the Hefei campaign
• Pan Zhang: fought alongside him during the Hefei campaign ### Adversaries - Zhang Ya: rebel leader at Dongye who proclaimed himself Supreme General and was defeated by He Qi
• Zhan Qiang: rebel leader at Dongye who proclaimed himself administrator of Kuaiji and was defeated by He Qi
• Hong Ming: Shanyue leader killed by He Qi in battle in 203
• Chen Pu and Zu Shan: Shanyue leaders at Linli Mountain defeated in He's night assault
• You Tu: rebel who received a seal from Cao Cao and was killed by He Qi
• Jin Zong: former Wu general who rebelled and defected to Wei; captured alive by He Qi
• Cao Xiu: Wei commander at Dongkou in 222; withdrew in the face of He's imposing army

Historical Assessment

Three Kingdoms / Contemporary - Sun Quan praised He Qi: “A man must strive; without accumulated conduct and long labor, this cannot be obtained.” (Records of the Three Kingdoms, “Biography of He Qi,” citing Biographies from South of the Yangzi)

• Zhu Yu wrote: “As for heroic bearing and martial resolution, and achievement in his age, General of the Rear He Qi's merit and accomplishments were manifest.” (Pei Songzhi's annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms, “Biography of Yu Fan,” citing Kuaiji Records)
• Chen Shou included He Qi among the generals who “settled internal disorders and brought peace to the realm,” observing that Shanyue communities were prone to revolt and that officers such as He were essential to stabilizing Sun Quan's territory. (Records of the Three Kingdoms, “Biography of He Qi”) ### Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties - Yu Pu's Biographies from South of the Yangzi gives a detailed account of He Qi's rescue of Sun Quan at Xiaoyao Ford, emphasizing his loyalty and direct remonstrance.
• Wei Zhao's Book of Wu records He Qi's recovery of Xu Sheng's lost standard during the Hefei fighting and commends his conduct in battle.
• Pei Songzhi's annotations to the Records of the Three Kingdoms cite Biographies from South of the Yangzi, the Book of Wu, and other materials to supplement He's biography, showing that accounts of his deeds continued to circulate in the Wei and Jin periods. ### Tang and Song Periods - Beitang Shuchao, citing the Wu Annals, records that He Qi recovered Xu Sheng's lost standard in the Hefei campaign.
• Imperial Readings of the Taiping Era, juan 339, citing the Book of Wu, records He's actions at Hefei.
• The Commentary on the Water Classic records Sun Quan's leap across the damaged bridge at Xiaoyao Ford and He Qi's support from the southern bank. ### Modern Assessments - Modern scholars generally regard He Qi as one of Sun Wu's most effective generals in suppressing the Shanyue and consider his military and administrative abilities important to the consolidation of Jiangnan.
• His capture of Linli Mountain is included in studies of ancient Chinese military history as a representative example of mountain assault warfare.
• His establishment of Xindu Commandery, Shixin County, and other administrative units is regarded as an important foundation for later local government in places such as Chun'an and is significant for historical-geographical research in Zhejiang, Anhui, and Fujian.