Guan Ying

Biography

Family Background and Early Life

Guan Ying was born in Suiyang County, in present-day Suiyang District of Shangqiu, Henan, toward the end of the Warring States period. Historical sources preserve little about his family and state only that he came from a humble background and made a living selling silk goods under the Qin. Such commercial origins were not unusual among early Han founding contributors: Fan Kuai had slaughtered dogs, while Zhou Bo had made woven silkworm trays. Guan Ying likewise emerged from the lower levels of society. The upheaval at the end of Qin gave him the opportunity to enter military service, and repeated battlefield achievements eventually brought him into the center of early Han power.

Following Liu Bang and Emerging as a Commander

In 208 BCE, the second year of Qin Er Shi, Liu Bang was leading anti-Qin forces as the Duke of Pei and had reached Yongqiu. Zhang Han had just defeated and killed Xiang Liang, and Liu Bang withdrew toward Dang Commandery. Guan Ying joined him there as a palace attendant. He subsequently defeated the force of the Dong Commandery commandant at Chengwu and Qin troops at Gangli. Because of his bravery, he received the rank Qidafu. He later fought Qin armies with Liu Bang south of Bo, at Kaifeng, and at Quyu, earning the rank Zhibo and the style Lord of Xuanling.

Guan Ying then fought with Liu Bang from west of Yangwu toward Luoyang, defeated Qin troops north of Shixiang, cut the Yellow River crossings, moved south to defeat the Nanyang administrator's army east of Nanyang, and helped pacify the commandery. He then entered Wuguan, fought at Lantian, and reached Bashang. For his performance he received the rank Zhigui and the style Lord Changwen.

After Liu Bang became King of Han, Guan Ying was appointed Gentleman of the Household and followed him into Hanzhong. In the tenth month he was made Central Palace Attendant. He then followed Liu Bang back east in the reconquest of the Three Qin, took Liyang, accepted the surrender of Sima Xin, King of Sai, and joined the siege of Zhang Han, King of Yong, at Feiqiu. He later moved east through Linjin Pass, accepted the surrender of Sima Ang, King of Yin, and helped pacify his territory.

The Chu–Han Contention and Cavalry Warfare

South of Dingtao, Guan Ying fought the forces of Xiang Yu's general Long Ju and the Wei chancellor Xiang Ta and defeated them after hard fighting. For this he was granted a rank among the marquises and styled Marquis Changwen, with Pingxiang in Du County as his fief. He then followed Liu Bang as Central Palace Attendant to take Dang County and advance on Pengcheng. When Xiang Yu crushed the Han army at the Battle of Pengcheng, Guan Ying withdrew west with Liu Bang and was stationed at Yongqiu.

After Wang Wu and the Wei lord Shentu rebelled, Guan Ying accompanied Liu Bang in defeating them, took Waihuang, recruited soldiers farther west, and was stationed at Xingyang. Xiang Yu's army attacked with powerful cavalry. Liu Bang sought commanders who could lead mounted troops, and the army recommended Li Bi and Luo Jia, former Qin cavalrymen. Because the two had once served Qin, they asked Liu Bang to appoint as their superior a trusted man skilled in riding and archery. Guan Ying had already shown great courage in repeated battles, so he was appointed Palace Grandee, with Li Bi and Luo Jia as his left and right commandants. He led cavalry of the Gentlemen of the Household east of Xingyang and routed the Chu cavalry.

Liu Bang then ordered Guan Ying to raid the Chu rear independently and cut the supply line between Yangwu and Xiangyi. Around Lu County he defeated the force of Xiang Yu's general Xiang Guan, and his soldiers killed a Right Major of the Army and a cavalry commander. He defeated Wang Wu, Lord of Zhe, and camped in western Yan; his men killed five Loufan officers and one lianyin. At Baima he defeated a detached force under Wang Wu commanded by Huan Ying and took an enemy commandant. He later led cavalry south across the Yellow River, escorted Liu Bang to Luoyang, and was sent to Handan to meet the forces of Chancellor Han Xin. By the time he returned to Aocang, he had been promoted to Censor-in-chief.

Pacifying Qi and Pursuing Xiang Yu

In 204 BCE, Guan Ying, as Censor-in-chief, received orders to lead cavalry of the Gentlemen of the Household east under Chancellor Han Xin. At Lixia he defeated the Qi army; his soldiers captured General of Chariots and Cavalry Hua Wushang and forty-six officers, forced enemy troops to surrender, took Linzi, and captured Tian Guang, the acting chancellor of Qi. He pursued Qi chancellor Tian Heng to Ying and Bo, defeated Qi cavalry, killed one cavalry commander, and captured four others. At Qiansheng he defeated the Qi general Tian Xi, whose head was taken by Guan Ying's troops. He then followed Han Xin east and attacked Long Ju and Liugong Xuan at Gaomi. His men killed Long Ju, captured a Right Major of the Army and a lianyin, and took ten Loufan officers; Guan Ying personally captured deputy commander Zhou Lan.

After Qi was pacified and Han Xin declared himself King of Qi, Guan Ying was sent with a separate force to defeat the Chu general Gong Gao north of Lu. He then moved south, defeated the army of the Administrator of Xue Commandery, personally captured a cavalry commander, attacked Fuyang, and advanced through Tongcheng, Qulü, and Xucheng southeast of Xiaxiang. He crossed the Huai, received the surrender of the cities of Huainan, and reached Guangling.

Xiang Yu sent Xiang Sheng, Lord Xue, and Lord Tan to recover territory north of the Huai. Guan Ying crossed north again and defeated Xiang Sheng and Lord Tan at Xiapi, killed Lord Xue, and took Xiapi. He defeated Chu cavalry at Pingyang, took Pengcheng, captured the Chu Pillar of State Xiang Tuo, and received the surrender of Liu, Xue, Pei, Zan, Xiao, and Xiang counties. He attacked Ku and Qiao and again captured deputy commander Zhou Lan. He later joined Liu Bang at Yixiang and helped defeat Xiang Yu's army around Chen. His troops killed two Loufan cavalry commanders and captured eight cavalry commanders, and Liu Bang added 2,500 households to his fief.

In 202 BCE, after Xiang Yu broke out of the encirclement at Gaixia, Liu Bang ordered Guan Ying, still Censor-in-chief, to pursue with chariots and cavalry. At Dongcheng he completed the defeat of Xiang Yu's forces. Five men under his command jointly cut up Xiang Yu's body and were each rewarded with marquisates. Guan Ying then led his officers across the Yangtze, defeated Wu Commandery and captured its administrator, pacified Yuzhang and Kuaiji Commanderies, and returned to settle fifty-two counties north of the Huai.

Founding the Western Han and Suppressing Rebellions

After Liu Bang became emperor, Guan Ying received three thousand additional households. In the autumn he followed the emperor as General of Chariots and Cavalry against Zang Tu, King of Yan. The following year he accompanied Liu Bang to Chen, where Han Xin, King of Chu, was detained. After returning to court, Liu Bang issued a hereditary tally and granted Guan Ying 2,500 households in Yingyin County as a fief, giving him the title Marquis of Yingyin.

Guan Ying later followed Liu Bang as General of Chariots and Cavalry into Dai against the rebellion of Xin, King of Han. At Mayi he was ordered to bring six counties north of Loufan into submission, killed the left chancellor of Dai, and defeated Xiongnu cavalry north of Wuquan. He again defeated Xiongnu cavalry around Jinyang and his soldiers killed one Xiongnu Baiti commander. Liu Bang then placed under his command the chariot and cavalry forces of Yan, Zhao, Qi, Liang, Chu, and other states, with which he defeated Xiongnu cavalry at Shashi. At Pingcheng he was trapped with Liu Bang by the Xiongnu and later withdrew with him toward Dongyuan.

During the campaign against Chen Xi, Guan Ying was ordered to operate independently at Quni against the army of Chen Xi's chancellor Hou Chang. He defeated the enemy, his troops killed Hou Chang and five special commanders, and he received the surrender of Quni, Lunu, Shangquyang, Anguo, and Anping before capturing Dongyuan.

When Ying Bu rebelled, Guan Ying led the advance as General of Chariots and Cavalry. He defeated a detached force of Ying Bu at Xiang County, killing three officers including a deputy commander and Loufan commander. He then defeated the forces of Ying Bu's Supreme Pillar of State and Grand Marshal and another detached force under Fei Zhu. Guan Ying personally captured a Left Major of the Army; his men killed ten junior enemy commanders and pursued the remnants to the Huai River. Liu Bang rewarded him with another 2,500 households.

After Ying Bu's defeat, Liu Bang fixed Guan Ying's fief at five thousand households in Yingyin and abolished his earlier fiefs. Across his campaigns, the source credits Guan Ying with assisting Liu Bang in capturing two officials of the 2,000-shi rank, independently defeating sixteen enemy armies, receiving the surrender of forty-six cities, pacifying one feudal state, two commanderies, and fifty-two counties, and capturing two generals, one Pillar of State, one Chancellor of State, and ten officials of 2,000-shi rank.

Eliminating the Lü Clan and Enthroning Emperor Wen

After Liu Bang's death, Guan Ying served Emperor Hui and Empress Dowager Lü as a marquis. In 180 BCE, the eighth year of Empress Dowager Lü, the empress dowager died. Lü Lu and others mobilized forces in Chang'an and were suspected of plotting disorder. Liu Xiang, King of Qi, marched west, declaring his intention to enter the capital and punish those who had improperly become kings. Lü Lu and the other commanders sent Guan Ying as a leading general to meet him.

When Guan Ying reached Xingyang, he coordinated with Marquis Jiang Zhou Bo and others, halted his army, and sent envoys to King Liu Xiang to explain the plan to eliminate the Lü clan. The Qi army stopped advancing. After Zhou Bo and his allies destroyed the Lü clan, the Qi king withdrew. Guan Ying returned from Xingyang and, together with Zhou Bo and Chen Ping, enthroned Liu Heng, King of Dai, as Emperor Wen of Han.

Emperor Wen added three thousand households to Guan Ying's fief, gave him one thousand catties of gold, and appointed him Defender-in-chief. In 177 BCE, the third year of Emperor Wen's first reign period, Zhou Bo left the grand councilorship and returned to his fief, and Guan Ying succeeded him as Grand Councilor while relinquishing the office of Defender-in-chief. In the same year the Xiongnu invaded Beidi and Shang Commanderies. Emperor Wen ordered Grand Councilor Guan Ying to lead eighty-five thousand cavalry against them. The Xiongnu withdrew. After the rebellion of Liu Xingju, King of Jibei, Emperor Wen ordered Guan Ying's field command ended. A little more than a year later, Guan Ying died in office as Grand Councilor and received the posthumous title Marquis Yi.

Major Activities

Military Contributions

Guan Ying was one of the most accomplished cavalry commanders among the founders of the Western Han. During the Chu–Han Contention, when Liu Bang faced Xiang Yu near Xingyang and Chu cavalry held an advantage, Guan Ying was selected as Palace Grandee to command mounted troops and routed the Chu cavalry east of Xingyang. This marked the beginning of his career as a cavalry commander. He later used independent mounted forces to raid the Chu rear and cut supply routes, winning repeated successes.

His most celebrated achievement came in the pursuit of Xiang Yu after Gaixia. When Xiang Yu broke out of the encirclement, Guan Ying led chariots and cavalry to Dongcheng and completed the destruction of Xiang Yu's force. Five of Guan Ying's men jointly divided Xiang Yu's body and were rewarded as marquises. This achievement further elevated Guan Ying's standing among the founding commanders.

After the Western Han was established, Guan Ying as General of Chariots and Cavalry participated in suppressing the rebellions of Zang Tu, Xin, King of Han, Chen Xi, Ying Bu, and other kings not of the Liu clan, and repeatedly fought successfully against the Xiongnu. The source's cumulative accounting credits him with defeating sixteen enemy forces under his own command, accepting the surrender of forty-six cities, pacifying one feudal state, two commanderies, and fifty-two counties, and capturing numerous senior officers.

Political Activity

Guan Ying's political career reached its height after Empress Dowager Lü's death. In 180 BCE, when Lü Lu and others mobilized and Liu Xiang of Qi advanced west, Guan Ying was sent to confront the Qi army. At Xingyang, however, he coordinated with Zhou Bo, halted his troops, and contacted the Qi king while the anti-Lü coalition acted in Chang'an. After the Lü clan was destroyed, Guan Ying joined Zhou Bo and Chen Ping in enthroning Liu Heng as Emperor Wen and was rewarded with the office of Defender-in-chief.

In 177 BCE, after Zhou Bo left the grand councilorship, Guan Ying succeeded him. That same year, with the Xiongnu invading the northern frontier, Guan Ying led eighty-five thousand cavalry while still serving as Grand Councilor, making him a rare early Han chancellor who personally commanded a major field army.

Travels and Places

Guan Ying's military career carried him across much of the territory of early imperial China: from Suiyang, Chengwu, Kaifeng, and Xingyang in Henan, to Liyang, Feiqiu, Lantian, and Bashang in Shaanxi; Lixia, Linzi, and Gaomi in Shandong; Guangling, Xiapi, and Pengcheng farther south and east; Jinyang, Pingcheng, and Mayi in Shanxi; and Xiang, Ku, and Qiao in the lower Huai region. The geographic extent of his campaigns was unusually broad among early Han founders.

Relations with Contemporaries

Guan Ying was closely associated with Liu Bang from 208 BCE onward and for more than twenty years remained one of Liu Bang's most effective cavalry commanders. He worked closely with Zhou Bo and Chen Ping during the elimination of the Lü clan and the enthronement of Emperor Wen. He also served under Han Xin during the pacification of Qi, and after Han Xin became King of Qi Guan Ying was entrusted with an independent field command. Guan Ying cooperated closely with Li Bi and Luo Jia, former Qin cavalry officers, in training and directing the cavalry of the Gentlemen of the Household. His retainer Zhang Meng later adopted the surname Guan and became an important member of the extended Guan family.

Personal Relations

Family

• Eldest son: Guan A, who inherited the title Marquis of Yingyin and received the posthumous name Ping
• Grandson: Guan Jiang, who inherited the title Marquis of Yingyin but lost it after conviction
• Grandson: Guan Xian, enfeoffed as Marquis of Linru; his state was later abolished after he was convicted of bribery
• Adopted son: Guan Meng, originally surnamed Zhang, formerly a retainer of Guan Ying; adopted the surname Guan and died in the Rebellion of the Seven States
• Adopted grandson: Guan Fu, son of Guan Meng; rose to the office of Grand Coachman but was exterminated with his clan after offending Tian Fen

Ruler–Subject

• Liu Bang: Guan Ying's ruler from 208 BCE; he followed him in campaigns for more than twenty years
• Liu Heng, Emperor Wen of Han: enthroned by Guan Ying together with Zhou Bo and Chen Ping; appointed Guan Ying Defender-in-chief and later Grand Councilor

Colleagues

• Zhou Bo: fellow founding contributor and a principal planner in the elimination of the Lü clan; Guan Ying later succeeded him as Grand Councilor
• Chen Ping: cooperated with Guan Ying and Zhou Bo in eliminating the Lü clan and enthroning Emperor Wen
• Han Xin: Guan Ying served under him during the pacification of Qi
• Li Bi and Luo Jia: former Qin cavalrymen who cooperated with Guan Ying in training and commanding the cavalry of the Gentlemen of the Household

Enemies

• Xiang Yu: pursued by Guan Ying to Dongcheng, where five of Guan Ying's men divided his body
• Long Ju: Xiang Yu's general, killed by Guan Ying's troops at Gaomi
• Zang Tu, Xin, King of Han, Chen Xi, and Ying Bu: kings of non-Liu lineages whose rebellions Guan Ying helped suppress

Historical Assessment

Han Period / Contemporaries

• Sima Qian's biography of Fan Kuai, Li Yiji, Xiahou Ying, and Guan Ying in the Records of the Grand Historian gives a detailed account of Guan Ying's achievements, repeatedly emphasizing the speed and force of his fighting and recording numbers of captures and kills, showing the importance attached to his military record.
• Liu Bang's confidence in Guan Ying is reflected in his choice of Guan Ying to command cavalry after the defeat at Pengcheng even though Li Bi and Luo Jia had greater technical experience in mounted warfare.
• Emperor Wen rewarded Guan Ying for helping secure the succession with three thousand additional households, one thousand catties of gold, and appointment as Defender-in-chief, and later made him Grand Councilor.

Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties

• The Western Jin scholar Sima Biao discussed the later Guan family, including Guan Fu, in the Continuation of the Book of Han, preserving material on the family's rise and decline.
• Pei Yin of Liu Song compiled the Collected Explanations to the Records of the Grand Historian, annotating passages on Guan Ying and affirming his importance in the early Han narrative.

Tang and Song Periods

• The Tang scholar Sima Zhen's Searching the Obscurities of the Records of the Grand Historian closely examined Guan Ying's career and noted that styles such as “Lord of Xuanling” and “Lord Changwen” were honorific appellations rather than hereditary noble titles.
• Song scholars often praised Guan Ying's cavalry ability and treated him as a representative mounted commander of the early Han. In Nanchang he was worshiped as a city god; the Southern Tang granted him the title “Prince Fude,” and in 1248, the eighth year of the Chunyou era, he received the title “Prince Zhonghui,” reflecting his long popular influence.

Modern Period

• Modern scholars generally regard Guan Ying as one of the most outstanding cavalry commanders of the early Han and see his use of cavalry in the Chu–Han Contention as important in later military history.
• Some scholars treat his rise from commercial origins to the grand councilorship as a representative example of social mobility in the early Han and of the rapid restructuring of society during the Qin–Han transition.
• Modern historians also emphasize his role in the elimination of the Lü clan and the enthronement of Emperor Wen, viewing it as important to stabilizing the early Han political order and restoring the Liu line to uncontested imperial power.