Zhang Xutuo

Biography

Family Background and Early Life

Zhang Xutuo came from an official family. According to his epitaph, his thirteenth-generation ancestor was Zhang Wen, who served in the Eastern Han as Minister of Works and Grand Commandant. His great-grandfather Zhang Qing served as assistant administrator of Jingling Commandery under Southern Qi and as Regular Mounted Attendant before joining Northern Wei, where he rose to Administrator of Hengnong Commandery. His grandfather Zhang Si served as Secretariat Drafter under Western Wei, Inspector of Shan Prefecture under Northern Zhou, commander of the Sanxiao garrison, and Duke of Nanyang. Because Zhang Qing had served as administrator of Hengnong, the family settled in Wenxiang. The Book of Sui therefore calls Zhang a man of Wenxiang in Hongnong, while his epitaph identifies his lineage by the older commandery affiliation of Xie in Nanyang.

In the second lunar month of 597, the seventeenth year of Kaihuang, Cuan Wan, Inspector of Kun Prefecture and a Qiang leader, rebelled against the Sui. At the age of thirty-two, Zhang Xutuo accompanied campaign commander Shi Wansui in the punitive expedition. He distinguished himself in suppressing the Western Cuan uprising, was granted the rank of Yitong, and received three hundred bolts of material. The Book of Sui describes him as “stern in nature, courageous and possessed of strategy,” and the campaign marked the beginning of his emergence as a military commander.

Middle Career and Campaigns against Rebellions

In 604, the fourth year of Renshou, Emperor Yang of Sui, Yang Guang, ascended the throne. His fifth younger brother Yang Liang, Prince of Han and commander of Bingzhou, rebelled at Bingzhou in opposition to the succession. Zhang Xutuo followed Yang Su, campaign commander of the Bingzhou circuit, in suppressing the revolt and was rewarded with the additional rank of Kaifu. Thereafter he gradually became one of the central Sui commanders responsible for suppressing peasant rebellions in the Shandong region.

In 610, the sixth year of Daye, Zhang became assistant administrator of Qi Commandery. Emperor Yang's repeated campaigns against Goguryeo had disrupted livelihoods, while famine drove grain prices sharply upward. Zhang decided to open the granaries and distribute grain. His subordinates argued that they had to wait for an imperial edict and could not open government stores on their own authority. Zhang replied: “The emperor is far away. Sending a messenger there and back will consume the seasons. The people face an emergency as though hanging upside down. If we wait until a reply arrives, they will already have filled the ditches and ravines. If I am punished for this, I will die without regret.” He opened the granaries first and reported afterward. Emperor Yang did not punish him and instead rewarded him. The episode was remembered as evidence of his concern for the people and willingness to accept responsibility.

In the third lunar month of 611, Wang Bo of Zouping raised the first major rebel banner at Changbai Mountain and gathered tens of thousands of followers. Government troops repeatedly failed to suppress him. Zhang Xutuo led forces against Wang, who moved south and plundered Lu Commandery. Zhang pursued relentlessly to Mount Dai and, taking advantage of Wang's complacency after earlier successes, selected elite troops for a surprise attack. Wang's army was heavily defeated and several thousand were killed. Wang gathered more than ten thousand survivors and crossed the Yellow River northward but was again overtaken and defeated by Zhang at Linyi, losing more than five thousand men and tens of thousands of livestock. Because the empire had long been at peace, many commoners had little military experience, and local officials often abandoned cities or opened the gates when faced with rebels. Zhang Xutuo alone was known for decisiveness and military skill, while also being adept at winning and managing the loyalty of soldiers; contemporaries therefore called him a famous general.

In 613, the ninth year of Daye, Wang Bo joined Sun Xuanya, Shi Zhizhe, Hao Xiaode, and other groups in attacking Zhangqiu with more than one hundred thousand men. Zhang sent naval forces to cut their river transport and personally led twenty thousand infantry and cavalry against them, inflicting a major defeat. As the rebels fled toward the crossings, Zhou Fashang's naval troops blocked them, and Zhang and Zhou attacked from land and water, defeating them again and capturing large quantities of families, baggage, and supplies. Emperor Yang was delighted, issued a special edict of praise, and ordered Zhang's portrait painted and presented. In the same year, Pei Changcai and Shi Zihe led twenty thousand rebels to Licheng and plundered the area. With no time to assemble his troops, Zhang rode out with only five horsemen, was surrounded many times, and suffered multiple wounds but continued fighting. When reinforcements arrived from the city, the rebels began to withdraw, and Zhang renewed the attack and defeated them. On the twenty-sixth day of the third lunar month, Guo Fangyu of Beihai Commandery gathered thirty thousand followers, called himself Duke of Lu, and together with Qin Junhong and other rebels besieged Beihai. Zhang told his subordinates that the rebels relied on their strength and believed he could not come to the rescue; if he moved quickly, they could certainly be broken. Most commanders did not respond, but Luo Shixin and Qin Shubao volunteered. Zhang selected elite troops and advanced at double speed. The rebels were indeed unprepared, and the Sui army defeated them, killing tens of thousands and capturing three thousand carts of supplies. Pei Caozhi, Inspector of the Metropolitan Region, submitted a memorial requesting rewards for Zhang, and Emperor Yang again sent envoys to honor the troops.

Dominance in the East and Death at Xingyang

In 614, the tenth year of Daye, Zuo Xiaoyou of Qi Commandery rebelled and occupied Cengou Mountain, building a force of one hundred thousand. In the eleventh lunar month, Zhang Xutuo marched against him, arranged an “Eight-Winds Encampment,” and pressed Zuo closely while dividing detachments to hold key positions. Zuo was forced to surrender with his followers. His commanders Xie Xiang, Wang Liang, Zheng Dabiao, and Li Wan, each with more than ten thousand men, were also suppressed. Zhang's reputation spread across the eastern region. He was promoted to deputy administrator of Qi Commandery and placed in charge of inspection and suppression across twelve commanderies of the Henan circuit.

In the twelfth lunar month of the same year, Lu Mingyue of Zhuo Commandery camped at Zhu'a with more than one hundred thousand troops. Zhang advanced with just over ten thousand men. The two sides established camps six or seven li apart and remained in confrontation for more than ten days until the Sui army began to run out of grain and prepared to withdraw. Zhang did not want to lose the opportunity. He told his subordinates that once the rebels saw the withdrawal they would certainly pursue with their entire army, creating the chance for an elite detachment to strike their camp. No one responded except Qin Qiong and Luo Shixin. Zhang ordered each to lead one thousand elite troops into concealment among the vegetation while he abandoned the camp and pretended to flee. Lu Mingyue led his entire force in pursuit. Qin and Luo seized the opportunity to attack the rebel camp and set fire to more than thirty stockades. When Lu turned back to rescue the camp, Zhang reversed course and struck him from the other side. The rebels collapsed, and Lu escaped with only a few hundred cavalry. Zhang subsequently defeated further rebel groups under Lü Mingxing, Shuai Rentai, and Huo Xiaohan and continued to fight Zhai Rang's Wagang Army in more than thirty engagements, reportedly winning every time.

By 616, the twelfth year of Daye, the Wagang Army under Zhai Rang had become the strongest rebel force in Henan. After joining Zhai, Li Mi advised that they first seize Xingyang and take control of the grain stores. Zhai marched west, captured Jindi Pass and most of the counties of Xingyang Commandery, and advanced on Xingyang city. Emperor Yang appointed Zhang Xutuo deputy administrator of Xingyang and sent him with more than ten thousand elite troops. Zhai had repeatedly been defeated by Zhang and was terrified when he heard that Zhang was coming, initially preparing to withdraw. Li Mi argued that Zhang was brave but lacked strategy, had grown arrogant and fierce after a run of victories, and could be captured in one battle if Zhai simply held his formation. Zhai reluctantly prepared to fight. Li concealed more than one thousand cavalry in woods north of Dahaisi and used the main force to meet Zhang frontally. On December 1, Zhang advanced in square formation. Zhai engaged and then retreated. Zhang pursued for more than ten li to the vicinity of Dahaisi, where the Wagang ambush suddenly emerged and Zhai Rang, Xu Shiji, and Wang Bodang encircled the Sui army. Zhang fought his way out, but seeing that his subordinates remained trapped, he reentered the encirclement to rescue them. He repeated this four times as his men were scattered. Looking to Heaven, Zhang said, “With defeat like this, how can I face the Son of Heaven?” He dismounted and continued fighting until he was killed by Li Mi, Zhai Rang, and their men, at the age of fifty-two. His soldiers reportedly wailed through the nights for several days after his death. Emperor Yang was deeply grieved and posthumously granted Zhang the rank of Grand Master for Splendid Happiness with Gold Seal and Purple Ribbon and the office of Administrator of Xingyang Commandery.

Major Activities

Military Activities

Zhang Xutuo was one of the most effective late-Sui commanders in suppressing peasant uprisings. From Wang Bo's rising in 611 onward, he successively suppressed or defeated forces led by Wang Bo, Sun Xuanya, Shi Zhizhe, Hao Xiaode, Pei Changcai, Shi Zihe, Guo Fangyu, Qin Junhong, Zuo Xiaoyou, Lu Mingyue, Lü Mingxing, Shuai Rentai, Huo Xiaohan, Zhai Rang, and others. His best-known actions included the battles of Mount Dai, Linyi, Zhangqiu, Licheng, Beihai, Cengou Mountain, and Zhu'a. His methods were characterized by seizing opportunities quickly, daring to defeat larger forces with smaller ones, coordinating land and river forces, employing elite surprise detachments, raising morale effectively, and personally leading from the front.

Civil Administration

In 610, while serving as assistant administrator of Qi Commandery during the Liaodong campaigns and famine, Zhang overruled objections, opened the government granaries before obtaining authorization, and distributed grain to the population. Emperor Yang praised the action. The episode became an example of Zhang's concern for civilian suffering and his willingness to accept responsibility in office.

Development of Military Talent

Zhang was skilled at managing soldiers and won deep loyalty from his troops. Two famous commanders of the late Sui and early Tang, Qin Qiong (Qin Shubao) and Luo Shixin, emerged under his command. In the battles of Beihai and Zhu'a, both repeatedly volunteered for dangerous assignments and won major victories. After Zhang's death, Qin and Luo joined Pei Renji, later entered the Wagang Army, and eventually became founding military figures of the Tang.

Travels and Places of Activity

Zhang Xutuo's military career centered chiefly on areas corresponding to present-day Shandong and Henan. Early in life he followed Shi Wansui against the Western Cuan in the Kunming region of present-day Yunnan and later followed Yang Su in suppressing Yang Liang's rebellion at Bingzhou (present-day Taiyuan, Shanxi). During the Daye era he was stationed for long periods in Qi Commandery (present-day Jinan, Shandong) and campaigned at Mount Dai (present-day Tai'an), Linyi (north of present-day Jinan), Zhangqiu, Licheng, Beihai (present-day Yidu), Cengou Mountain (northeast of present-day Zhaoyuan), Zhu'a (southwest of present-day Yucheng), and other locations. In 616 he was transferred to Xingyang (in the present-day Zhengzhou region, Henan), where he was ultimately killed at Dahaisi.

Personal Relations

Family

• Thirteenth-generation ancestor: Zhang Wen, Eastern Han Minister of Works and Grand Commandant.
• Great-grandfather: Zhang Qing, assistant administrator of Jingling Commandery under Southern Qi and Administrator of Hengnong under Northern Wei.
• Grandfather: Zhang Si, Secretariat Drafter under Western Wei, Inspector of Shan Prefecture and commander of the Sanxiao garrison under Northern Zhou, and Duke of Nanyang.
• Son: Zhang Yuanbei. After Zhang Xutuo's death, Emperor Yang ordered him to command his father's troops; he was later killed fighting rebels while traveling through Qi Commandery.

Mentors and Associates

• Shi Wansui: Major Sui general whom Zhang followed in his early campaign against the Western Cuan; an important early military superior.
• Yang Su: Powerful Sui minister under whom Zhang helped suppress Yang Liang's rebellion.
• Qin Qiong (Qin Shubao): Zhang's subordinate commander, known for courage and repeated volunteer service in dangerous attacks; later a founding general of the Tang.
• Luo Shixin: Zhang's subordinate commander, famed for courage and often paired with Qin Qiong; later entered Tang service.
• Zhou Fashang: Sui naval commander who coordinated land-and-water attacks with Zhang at Zhangqiu.

Ruler

• Emperor Yang of Sui, Yang Guang: Zhang's sovereign, who repeatedly praised and rewarded him and posthumously granted him the rank Grand Master for Splendid Happiness with Gold Seal and Purple Ribbon and the office of Administrator of Xingyang Commandery.
• Pei Caozhi: Inspector of the Metropolitan Region who submitted a memorial requesting rewards for Zhang.

Enemies

• Wang Bo: Leader of a late-Sui peasant uprising, repeatedly defeated by Zhang.
• Lu Mingyue: Rebel leader crushed by Zhang at Zhu'a.
• Zuo Xiaoyou: Rebel leader who surrendered to Zhang after the fighting at Cengou Mountain.
• Zhai Rang: Leader of the Wagang Army; fought Zhang in more than thirty engagements and was repeatedly defeated before Zhang's final campaign.
• Li Mi: Strategist of the Wagang Army who designed the ambush that killed Zhang at Dahaisi.
• Xu Shiji: Wagang commander who took part in the encirclement at Dahaisi.
• Wang Bodang: Wagang commander who took part in the encirclement at Dahaisi.

Historical Assessment

Sui and Contemporary Views

• Emperor Yang of Sui was reportedly deeply saddened by Zhang Xutuo's death and posthumously granted him the rank Grand Master for Splendid Happiness with Gold Seal and Purple Ribbon and the office of Administrator of Xingyang Commandery, according to Zhang's epitaph.
• Li Mi said: “Xutuo is brave but without strategy. His army has won repeatedly, and he has become arrogant and fierce. He can be captured in one battle.” (Book of Sui, vol. 70, Biography 35).
• Contemporaries said: “Xutuo alone was brave, decisive, and skilled in battle. He was also good at managing and commanding his men and won the hearts of the soldiers; commentators called him a famous general.” (Book of Sui, vol. 71, Biography 36).
• After his death, Zhang's troops reportedly “wailed throughout the night for several days without stopping.” (Book of Sui, vol. 71, Biography 36).

Tang and Song Periods

• The compilers of the Book of Sui, including Wei Zheng, compared Zhang Xutuo and other loyal Sui generals with earlier models of loyalty and praised their fidelity in a time of dynastic disorder, invoking the saying that loyal ministers emerge when the state is in chaos.
• Zhang's epitaph praised the family's inherited loyalty and filial conduct and celebrated the brilliance of its lineage and service to the state.

Ming and Qing Periods

• Ming-Qing thinker Wang Fuzhi, discussing the contenders of the late Sui in Du Tongjian Lun, treated Zhang Xutuo as a representative loyal minister of the Sui and viewed his death in battle as an expression of a subject's duty.
• Qing historian Zhao Yi, in Notes on the Twenty-Two Histories, described Zhang as “a good general of the Sui,” lamenting that one man could not hold up a collapsing dynasty and could not reverse the Sui's fall.

Modern Views

• Modern historian Cen Zhongmian, in his History of the Sui and Tang, described Zhang Xutuo as the late Sui's most effective commander for suppressing rebellion, crediting his military talent while noting that he ultimately fell victim to Li Mi's strategy.
• Modern scholars commonly regard Zhang as a pillar of Sui authority in the Shandong region and view his death as marking the effective collapse of Sui control in Henan, after which the Wagang Army expanded rapidly and became a major force in the overthrow of the dynasty.
• Zhang Xutuo's epitaph was published in the journal Cultural Relics of Central China in 2011, providing important first-hand evidence for research on his family background and career.