Liu Heita

Biography

Family Background and Early Years

Liu Heita came from Zhangnan in Qinghe, northeast of present-day Gucheng County in Hebei. His year of birth is unknown. According to the Old Book of Tang, in his youth he was “unruly, fond of drinking, fond of gambling, and did not pursue a livelihood.” His family was poor, sometimes lacking food and clothing, which caused his father and elder brothers deep concern. His fellow townsman Dou Jiande often supported him, and the two formed a close friendship from an early age. The source portrays these circumstances as contributing to a character combining the boldness of a roaming martial adventurer with little regard for the ritual restraints associated with the scholar-official class. As disorder spread in the late Sui and peasant rebellions arose, Liu joined the rebel army of Hao Xiaode and later submitted to Li Mi as a subordinate general.

Shifting Allegiances and Joining Dou Jiande

In 618, the first year of Wude, the Wagang Army collapsed and Li Mi surrendered to the Tang. Liu Heita was captured by Wang Shichong. Having heard of Liu's bravery, Wang appointed him a cavalry commander and placed him in defense of Xinxiang. Liu despised Wang Shichong's character, however, and before long escaped with his men back to Hebei to join his old friend Dou Jiande. Dou was delighted, appointed him a general, enfeoffed him as Duke of Handong Commandery, and ordered him to lead special forces in attacks in different directions. By then Liu had moved among several rebel groups and was skilled at judging changing circumstances. He was both brave in battle and resourceful. Whenever Dou Jiande made military plans, Liu was given particular responsibility for reconnaissance. He frequently infiltrated enemy territory to observe conditions and then struck by surprise when an opportunity arose, achieving repeated successes. In the army he was known as the “Divinely Brave General.”

Dou Jiande's Defeat and a New Rebellion

In May 621, the fourth year of Wude, Dou Jiande was defeated by Tang forces at the Battle of Hulao and the Xia polity collapsed. Liu Heita fled back to his home in Zhangnan, where he grew vegetables for himself and remained behind closed doors. In July, Emperor Gaozu of Tang ordered Dou Jiande executed in Chang'an and also compelled former officers including Fan Yuan, Dong Kangmai, Cao Zhan, Gao Yaxian, and Wang Xiaohu to report to Chang'an. Angered by Dou's execution and aware that, after Wang Shichong's surrender, prominent officers including Shan Xiongxin had been killed, they feared that they too would not survive if they went to the capital and decided to rebel.

They sought divination, and the result was interpreted to mean that success required a leader surnamed Liu. Fan Yuan and the others first approached Liu Ya, a former officer of Dou Jiande. Liu Ya refused, saying that the realm was already at peace and that he was content to farm in the countryside; the group angrily killed him. They then approached Liu Heita and explained their plan. Fan Yuan praised him as “bold and full of unusual strategies, generous and tolerant toward others, and bound to his soldiers by favor,” adding that he had long heard that someone of the Liu surname would become a ruler and that no one else was suitable to gather the former followers of the Prince of Xia. Liu Heita was delighted, slaughtered an ox for a gathering, assembled more than one hundred men, seized Zhangnan county seat, and defeated combined attacks by Dai Yuanxiang, Prefect of Beizhou, and Quan Wei, Prefect of Weizhou, taking their equipment and surviving troops. Former followers of Dou Jiande such as Fan Yuan and Gao Yaxian gradually joined him, bringing his force to two thousand. On July 19 he erected an altar at Zhangnan in Beizhou to sacrifice to Dou Jiande, styled himself General-in-Chief, and formally launched the uprising.

Rapid Expansion and Proclamation as Prince of Handong

After Liu raised troops, many former generals and officials of Dou Jiande killed Tang officials and joined him. In August he captured Liting, where Garrison Guard General Wang Xingmin was killed; Cui Yuanxun of Shenzhou killed Prefect Pei Xi and defected; Xu Yuanlang, Area Commander of Yanzhou, also rebelled. In September Liu heavily defeated the combined forces of Li Shentong, Prince of Huai'an, and Luo Yi, Area Commander of Youzhou. In October he captured Yingzhou and Guanzhou. In November he took Dingzhou and killed Area Commander Li Xuantong. In December he captured Jizhou and killed Area Commander Qu Leng; at Songzhou he also defeated Tang Left Martial Guard General Li Shiji and captured the brothers Xue Wanjun, greatly increasing his power. Illig Qaghan of the Göktürks also sent troops to aid him. The Tang court was alarmed, and on December 15 dispatched Li Shimin, Prince of Qin, and Li Yuanji, Prince of Qi, to campaign against him. Liu's advance continued: within three days he captured Xingzhou, Weizhou, and Shenzhou and killed Pan Daoyi, Area Commander of Weizhou. Within half a year he had recovered all of Dou Jiande's former territory.

In the first lunar month of 622, the fifth year of Wude, Liu Heita proclaimed himself Prince of Handong at Xiangzhou, established the era name Tianzao, appointed Fan Yuan Left Vice Director, Dong Kangmai Minister of War, and Gao Yaxian General of the Right, restored the former civil and military officials of Dou Jiande's Xia polity to their previous posts, and established his capital at Mingzhou. His laws and administration followed Dou Jiande's example, while the source states that in attacking and fighting he was more bold and decisive.

Battle of Mingshui and Flight to the Göktürks

In February 622, Li Shimin led troops against Liu Heita and camped at Weizhou. Liu repeatedly sent men to challenge the Tang army, but each attempt was repulsed. Alarmed, he abandoned Xiangzhou and withdrew to defenses at Lieren. People in Mingshui County offered to act as internal collaborators for the Tang, and Li Shimin sent Area Commander Luo Shixin into the city to hold it. Liu Heita captured Mingshui County, Luo Shixin was killed, and Liu then occupied Mingzhou.

In March, Li Shimin camped behind the natural protection of the Ming River and pressured Liu while sending detached forces to cut his supply route. Liu challenged him repeatedly, but Li remained behind his defenses to wear down Liu's momentum. When Liu's stores were exhausted, Li judged that he would be forced into a decisive battle. He had the upper Ming River blocked in advance and instructed the officers guarding the dike to break it after half of the enemy had crossed. Liu indeed led twenty thousand infantry and cavalry across the river and formed for battle. When roughly half had crossed, Tang forces broke the dike and released the water. Liu's army collapsed; more than ten thousand were killed and several thousand drowned. Liu, Fan Yuan, and more than one thousand men escaped to the Göktürks. Shandong was pacified.

Borrowing Göktürk Troops and Recovering Hebei

In June 622, Liu Heita borrowed Göktürk troops and rose again, invading Shandong. In July he reached Dingzhou, where former officers Cao Zhan and Dong Kangmai, who had previously fled to Xianyu, gathered forces to support him. Emperor Gaozu sent Li Daoxuan, Prince of Huaiyang, as commander of the Hebei expeditionary army, together with Duke Shi Wanbao, against Liu. In September Liu captured Yingzhou and killed Prefect Ma Kuangwu; Ma Junde of Dongyanzhou also defected with his prefecture. In October Emperor Gaozu sent Li Yuanji, Prince of Qi, to command the campaign. Liu's forces attacked Shu County and Prefect Xu Shanhu of Beizhou was killed; Prefect Liu Junhui of Guanzhou then defected. On October 17, Liu's army met the Tang forces at Xiabo and won a major victory. Li Daoxuan was killed, and Shi Wanbao escaped on a light horse. Li Yuan, Prince of Lujiang and Area Commander of Mingzhou, abandoned the city and withdrew westward. Prefectures north of Xiangzhou joined Liu, and within ten days he had recovered his former towns and again made Mingzhou his capital. In November he captured Cangzhou. The Tang court changed commanders three times and ultimately replaced Li Yuanji with Crown Prince Li Jiancheng. In December Liu captured Hengzhou and killed Prefect Wang Gongzheng; he then unsuccessfully attacked Daming County and confronted the armies of Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji at Changle.

Defeat at Raoyang and Execution at Mingzhou

Crown Prince Li Jiancheng adopted a strategy proposed by Wei Zheng, releasing prisoners to encourage defections. Some of Liu Heita's troops were induced to rebel. Liu was defeated and fled by night toward Guantao with several hundred cavalry. On December 25 Tang forces inflicted another major defeat at Guantao, and Liu withdrew to Maozhou, forming a line with his rear against the Yongji Canal. Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji attacked with more than one thousand cavalry; several thousand of Liu's men were cut down into the water and killed, and he fled again. Li Jiancheng ordered cavalry commander Liu Hongji to pursue. The relentless pursuit gave Liu no rest, and the long flight exhausted his soldiers.

On the fifth day of the first lunar month of 623, the sixth year of Wude, Liu reached Raoyang with only a little more than one hundred cavalry. Hungry, he sought to enter the town for food. Zhuge Dewei, whom Liu had appointed Prefect of Raozhou, came out to meet him and invited him inside. Liu initially refused, but Zhuge pretended complete sincerity and respect and, weeping, repeatedly pressed the invitation. Once Liu entered the town, Zhuge ordered troops to seize him and delivered him to Li Jiancheng. Before execution Liu cursed, “You dogs have betrayed me!” He also lamented that he had once escaped with his life and was farming vegetables at home, only to be led into this outcome by Gao Yaxian and the others. In the second lunar month, Li Jiancheng beheaded Liu Heita and his younger brother Liu Shishan together at Mingzhou. Shandong was pacified.

Major Activities

Rebellion against the Tang

Liu Heita's principal activities were concentrated in the fourth through sixth years of Wude, 621–623. After Dou Jiande was killed, former officers including Fan Yuan, Dong Kangmai, Cao Zhan, and Gao Yaxian, seeking both self-preservation and revenge, chose Liu as their leader. Starting with a little over one hundred men, Liu seized Zhangnan county seat and rapidly gathered several thousand followers. Within half a year he swept across Hebei, heavily defeated the armies of Li Shentong, Prince of Huai'an, and Luo Yi, Area Commander of Youzhou, defeated Li Shiji, captured the Xue Wanjun brothers, and seized important centers including Dingzhou, Jizhou, Xingzhou, and Weizhou. He completely recovered Dou Jiande's former territory. The speed and scale of his success alarmed the Tang court enough to send Li Shimin, Prince of Qin, to campaign against him personally.

Establishment of the Handong Polity

In the first lunar month of 622, Liu proclaimed himself Prince of Handong at Xiangzhou, adopted Tianzao as his era name, and established his capital at Mingzhou. He restored the former civil and military officials of Dou Jiande's Xia polity, appointing Fan Yuan Left Vice Director, Dong Kangmai Minister of War, and Gao Yaxian General of the Right, thereby creating a complete governmental structure. His administration followed Dou Jiande's precedent, though the source states that he was more bold and decisive in military action. The polity was short-lived but received wide support in Hebei, as many of Dou Jiande's former officers and officials joined it, reflecting the deep foundation of Dou Jiande's support in the region.

Battle of Mingshui

The Battle of Mingshui was the decisive engagement between Liu Heita and Li Shimin. Li used the Ming River as a natural defensive position, held back from battle to blunt Liu's momentum, and sent forces to cut his supply routes. When Liu's stores were exhausted and he was forced to fight, Tang forces opened a dike on the Ming River and flooded his army. More than ten thousand of Liu's troops were killed and several thousand drowned; his main force was destroyed, and he escaped to the Göktürks with only a little over one thousand men. The source describes the battle as both a major military turning point and an example of Li Shimin's command skill. It also states that later remains at Gou Mountain in Yongnian County and at Dacangmen Mountain in Shahe County were associated with Tang positions and storehouses from the campaign.

Borrowing Göktürk Troops and Retaking Hebei

After fleeing to the Göktürks, Liu did not give up. In June 622 he borrowed Göktürk troops and again entered Shandong. In July he reached Dingzhou, where former officers Cao Zhan and Dong Kangmai gathered forces in response. At the Battle of Xiabo in October, he defeated Tang troops and killed Li Daoxuan, Prince of Huaiyang and commander of the Hebei expeditionary army, forcing Li Yuan, Prince of Lujiang and Area Commander of Mingzhou, to abandon the city and withdraw west. Within ten days Liu recovered his former cities and again made Mingzhou his capital. Although this second uprising was smaller than the first, it still posed a serious threat to Tang rule in Hebei, and the court eventually replaced Li Yuanji with Crown Prince Li Jiancheng and committed major resources to the campaign.

Relations with the Göktürks

Liu Heita twice relied on Göktürk military assistance against the Tang. Early in his 621 uprising he sent envoys north to establish ties with the Göktürks, and Illig Qaghan sent troops to aid him. After the defeat at Mingshui in 622, Liu fled to the Göktürks and in June returned with borrowed Göktürk forces. His cooperation with them reflected a broader pattern in which northern regional powers in the late Sui and early Tang sought support from the Göktürks, complicating Tang efforts to unify the north.

Personal Relations

Family

• Liu Shishan (younger brother): joined Liu Heita's uprising and was beheaded with him at Mingzhou in 623

Friends and Associates

• Dou Jiande: fellow townsman and close friend from youth; often assisted the impoverished Liu Heita. Liu later joined Dou, was enfeoffed as Duke of Handong Commandery, and after Dou's defeat and death rose again in his name and held sacrifices for him
• Hao Xiaode: rebel leader whom Liu first joined
• Li Mi: Liu entered Li Mi's service after serving Hao Xiaode and became a subordinate general

Ruler–Minister Relations

• Fan Yuan: former officer of Dou Jiande and a principal organizer of the uprising who promoted Liu as leader; later served as Left Vice Director in the Handong polity
• Dong Kangmai: former officer of Dou Jiande and one of the organizers of the uprising; served as Minister of War
• Cao Zhan: former officer of Dou Jiande and one of the organizers of the uprising
• Gao Yaxian: former officer of Dou Jiande and one of the organizers of the uprising; served as General of the Right
• Zhuge Dewei: Prefect of Raozhou appointed by Liu Heita; later betrayed and captured him

Enemies

• Li Shimin: Tang Prince of Qin; campaigned against Liu in 621–622 and defeated him decisively at the Battle of Mingshui
• Li Jiancheng: Tang crown prince; replaced Li Yuanji as commander in 622, adopted Wei Zheng's strategy to defeat Liu, and ultimately had him executed
• Li Yuanji: Tang Prince of Qi; successively campaigned against Liu alongside Li Shimin and Li Jiancheng
• Wang Shichong: late-Sui regional ruler who captured Liu and appointed him a cavalry commander; Liu despised him and soon escaped
• Li Shentong: Tang Prince of Huai'an; defeated by Liu in 621
• Luo Yi: Tang Area Commander of Youzhou; defeated together with Li Shentong by Liu
• Li Shiji: Tang Left Martial Guard General; defeated by Liu at Songzhou
• Li Daoxuan: Tang Prince of Huaiyang and commander of the Hebei expeditionary army; killed at the Battle of Xiabo
• Xu Yuanlang: Tang Area Commander of Yanzhou; rose in support of Liu and was later defeated by Tang forces

Historical Assessment

Tang and Contemporary Assessments

• Fan Yuan: “The Duke of Handong, Liu Heita, is bold and full of unusual strategies, generous and tolerant toward others, and bound to his soldiers by favor.” (Old Book of Tang, biography of Liu Heita)
• Liu Xu and other compilers of the Old Book of Tang: described him as “unruly, fond of drinking, fond of gambling, and not pursuing a livelihood,” and later as having moved among many rebel groups, being good at observing changes in circumstances, brave, and highly deceitful
• Ouyang Xiu and other compilers of the New Book of Tang: grouped Liu Heita and another rebel leader as brave but lacking strategy and criticized their methods of commanding followers, noting that both were killed through betrayal from within their own ranks

Song and Yuan Periods

• Sima Guang's Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance gives a detailed account of Liu Heita's uprising and treats it as an important episode in the wars of early Tang unification. The source states that it acknowledges aspects of his military ability while criticizing his repeated rebellions and reliance on Göktürk forces.
• Song compendia such as the Cefu Yuangui classified Liu Heita among “usurpers and pretenders,” treating him as a regional separatist power.

Ming and Qing Periods

• Qing works such as the Jiaqing Revised Comprehensive Gazetteer and the Gazetteer of Zhili recorded historical remains associated with the Battle of Mingshui, including an old camp of Emperor Taizong at Gou Mountain in Yongnian County and Tang storehouse remains at Dacangmen Mountain in Shahe County, indirectly reflecting the historical impact of the conflict between Liu Heita and Li Shimin.
• Wang Fuzhi, in Du Tongjian Lun, discussed Liu's repeated uprisings in the context of early Tang unification and, according to the source, held that despite support in Hebei he lacked a long-term strategy and ultimately could not succeed.

Modern Assessments

• Modern historians generally treat Liu Heita as a leader of late-Sui peasant rebels and a representative of Dou Jiande's surviving faction. His uprising is regarded as reflecting both the depth of Dou Jiande's popular foundation in Hebei and shortcomings in early Tang governance of the region.
• Chen Yinke, in Draft Essay on the Origins of Sui and Tang Institutions, analyzed tensions between regional powers in Shandong and Hebei and the Guanzhong-Longxi group; the source treats Liu's uprising as an important manifestation of that opposition.
• Huang Yongnian, in Political History of China from the Sixth to the Ninth Centuries, discussed the background and course of Liu's uprising and its relationship with the Göktürks in depth.