Zhang Yongde

Biography

Family Background and Early Life

Zhang Yongde was born in 928, the third year of Tiancheng under Later Tang, in Yangqu, Bing Prefecture. His family was wealthy and prominent locally. His father Zhang Ying eventually became Defense Commissioner of An Prefecture and was known for a severe temperament. When Zhang Yongde was four, his biological mother Lady Ma was divorced. His grandmother raised him, and he later became known locally for his filial conduct toward his stepmother Lady Liu.

When Guo Wei, the future Emperor Taizu of Later Zhou, was still serving as an officer of the imperial guards, he became friendly with Zhang Ying and arranged for his daughter to marry Zhang Yongde. When Guo later served as Military Affairs Commissioner under Later Han, he memorialized recommending Zhang for an appointment among the palace attendants, beginning Zhang's official career.

Political Choice in a Time of Disorder

In 950, the third year of Qianyou, Zhang was ordered to Lu Prefecture to present birthday gifts to Chang Si, Military Commissioner of Zhaoyi Circuit. Emperor Yin of Later Han was then secretly attempting to eliminate Guo Wei's faction and had sent men to kill Guo's relatives. While at Lu Prefecture, Zhang learned that a secret edict had been sent to Chang Si and realized that his own life might be in danger. Remaining calm, he asked Chang: “Are you going to kill me? I have no complaint if I die; I only fear implicating your clan.” Chang was startled. Zhang then analyzed the situation, saying that corrupt men controlled the court, that Guo had sworn to clear the ruler's side, and that if the enterprise succeeded Chang would gain merit, while even death after failure would not be too late. Chang accepted the argument, treated Zhang generously instead of killing him, and privately asked whether Guo's uprising was likely to succeed. Zhang replied that it almost certainly would. Guo soon succeeded in rising, and Chang sent Zhang back to join him, later lamenting that he had almost ruined a great matter.

The episode showed Zhang's composure and political judgment. He preserved his own life while also gaining the support of a regional military commissioner for his father-in-law.

A New Powerful Figure under Later Zhou

In 951, the first year of Guangshun, Guo Wei proclaimed himself emperor and founded Later Zhou. Zhang's wife was made Princess of Jin, and Zhang was appointed General of the Left Guard, senior officer among the inner palace attendants, Commandant-Escort, and concurrently governor of He Prefecture. The following year he was promoted to Chief Supervisor of the Palace Command and concurrent Training Commissioner of En Prefecture, and soon afterward to Commander-in-Chief of the Palace Command and Defense Commissioner of Si Prefecture, at only twenty-four years of age.

In 954, the first year of Xiande, Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, Chai Rong, came to the throne. Liu Chong of Northern Han seized the opportunity to ally with the Khitan and invade. Chai Rong personally campaigned and the armies met at Gaoping. At the outset, Later Zhou generals Fan Aineng and He Hui fled with their troops and the situation became critical. Zhang Yongde and Zhao Kuangyin each led two thousand palace troops in a determined counterattack. Zhang's men were skilled in mounted archery and at the decisive moment inflicted severe losses on the Northern Han–Khitan forces, reversing the battle and securing a major victory in which more than seven thousand Northern Han troops surrendered.

After the battle the army camped at Shangdang. Chai Rong summoned Zhang at night to discuss how to punish officers who had fled. The emperor initially intended to execute only the principal commanders and a limited number of officers. Zhang advised that if the emperor wished merely to hold the frontier, such punishment would be enough, but if he intended to expand the realm and project power across the empire, he needed to punish the failure severely and restore military discipline. Chai Rong threw his pillow to the ground and loudly praised the advice. The next day Fan Aineng and He Hui were executed as an example, greatly strengthening discipline.

Later Zhou then besieged Taiyuan. Zhang, Fu Yanqing, and Shi Yanchao advanced to Xinkou to cut the route of Khitan reinforcements. After two months without taking the city, Khitan support arrived and Shi Yanchao was killed, forcing the Zhou army to withdraw. Zhang received the post of Military Commissioner of Wuxin Circuit for his service and was later transferred to Yicheng Circuit.

Achievements in the Southern Campaigns

Zhang's father Zhang Ying, while Defense Commissioner of An Prefecture, had been killed by subordinates including Cao Cheng after his harsh conduct and an attempt to force marriage with a subordinate's daughter. The killers fled to Southern Tang. When Later Zhou decided in 955 to attack Southern Tang, Zhang volunteered for the campaign in part because his father's killers were sheltering there.

At Shouchun, the Southern Tang commander Liu Renzhan defended stubbornly. Zhang sent exhausted troops to draw the enemy out and feigned a retreat for thirty li, while elite cavalry waited in ambush on both sides. Once Tang troops entered the trap, he launched a converging attack and inflicted a major defeat; Liu Renzhan narrowly escaped. In 956, when Chai Rong personally reached Shou Prefecture, Liu sought to slow the Zhou assault and sent Cao Cheng and two other killers in cages to the Zhou camp. Chai Rong handed the three over to Zhang, allowing him to avenge his father.

That same year Zhang and Zhao Kuangyin led the vanguard to Zijin Mountain, where Southern Tang forces had established eighteen well-prepared camps. Zhang positioned strong bows and crossbows on high ground west of the enemy fortifications. Zhao feigned an attack against the first camp and then a retreat, drawing Tang troops out. Zhang triggered the ambush from the ridge and rode into the empty enemy camp, scattering the defenders. The next day the Zhou army attacked the second camp and the Southern Tang force fled through its south gate.

At the same time Han Lingkun at Yangzhou was under pressure from Southern Tang troops and wanted to withdraw. Chai Rong sent Zhang to reinforce him. At Quxiyan, Zhang defeated more than a thousand troops from Si Prefecture and then camped at Xiacai. Southern Tang forces relied on river warfare and sent large tower ships down the river, gathering between Hao and Si prefectures. Their commander Lin Renzhao advanced by land and water and sent boats loaded with firewood downwind to burn the Zhou floating bridge. At the critical moment the wind reversed, the Tang troops pulled back slightly, and Zhang advanced and defeated them. He then sent skilled swimmers at night beneath Tang vessels to fasten them together with iron chains, leaving the ships unable to maneuver. Many men drowned and the Zhou army captured dozens of large vessels. Zhang removed his gold belt and awarded it to the swimmers. He then stretched more than a thousand chi of iron chain across the Huai River just upstream of the floating bridge, fastening it with huge timbers to strengthen the defense. Soon afterward he defeated another thousand Tang troops on the north bank and captured dozens more warships. The court issued an edict praising him.

In the winter of 956 Zhang was promoted to Inspector-General of the Palace Command, becoming the highest commander of the Later Zhou palace army. In 957, after the capture of Shou Prefecture, he returned to court and was appointed Acting Grand Commandant and Military Commissioner of Zhenning Circuit.

The “Inspector-General Will Become Emperor” Incident

In the summer of 958, the fifth year of Xiande, Khitan forces harassed the frontier and Zhang led twenty thousand infantry and cavalry to resist them. He later joined Chai Rong's northern expedition. When the army returned and camped at Chanyuan, Chai Rong discovered among documents a woven leather bag containing a wooden tablet three chi long on which were written five characters meaning “the Inspector-General will become emperor.” The emperor consequently removed Zhang from the office of Inspector-General of the Palace Command and stripped him of military command, while granting him Acting Grand Commandant and Participant in Determining Government Matters. Zhao Kuangyin replaced him as Inspector-General of the Palace Command.

In 959 Chai Rong died and the child emperor Chai Zongxun succeeded. Zhang was transferred to Military Commissioner of Zhongwu Circuit. The next year Zhao Kuangyin launched the Chenqiao Mutiny and founded the Song Dynasty. Because Zhang had already been removed from control of the palace army, he remained outside the center of this political storm.

Senior General under the First Three Song Emperors

In 960, the first year of Jianlong, after Emperor Taizu of Song Zhao Kuangyin came to the throne, Zhang received the additional title Palace Attendant. When he came to court, he was appointed Military Commissioner of Wusheng Circuit. Emperor Taizu summoned him to the rear garden, reminisced about earlier times, drank with him from large cups, and repeatedly called him “imperial son-in-law” rather than using his name, showing exceptional courtesy.

Northern Han still survived, and Taizu privately asked Zhang for advice. Zhang replied that Taiyuan had few but fierce troops and was supported by the Khitan, making it difficult to conquer directly. He proposed sending many mobile units each year to disrupt Northern Han agriculture while dispatching covert agents to work against Khitan support, after which the state could be taken. Taizu strongly approved. The plan reflected Zhang's understanding of the strategic relationship between Northern Han and the Khitan.

In 977, the second year of Taiping Xingguo, under Emperor Taizong of Song, Zhang came to court and was appointed Senior General of the Left Guard. In 980 he was demoted to General-in-Chief of the same guard after falsely invoking an imperial order to sell bamboo and timber from Qin and Long without customs tax. Several months later he was restored to his former rank. The next year he was promoted to Duke of Deng. During the Yongxi era he successively administered Cang, Xiong, and Ding prefectures, all important northern frontier positions.

In 988 he was appointed Military Commissioner of Anhua Circuit and recalled to serve as formation commissioner for the two Hebei routes, stationed at Ding Prefecture. He fought Khitan forces and made many captures. In 989 he entered mourning for his mother but was recalled to service before the period ended. In 990 he replaced Tian Chongjin as administrator of Zhen Prefecture. The next year he was transferred to Military Commissioner of Taining Circuit and Palace Attendant and sent to Bing Prefecture as administrator and overall commander for Bing and Dai.

While at Taiyuan, Zhang ordered personal guards to trade tea for profit and also smuggled sheep beyond the passes. Fiscal Commissioner Wang Sizong reported him. Emperor Taizong had issued an edict soon after his accession forbidding officials traveling on government relay privileges from trading goods and competing with common people. Zhang was therefore dismissed and reduced to Senior General of the Left Guard.

In 997, the third year of Zhidao, Emperor Zhenzong came to the throne and promoted Zhang to Duke of Wei, placing him in charge of ceremonial affairs for the Left Jinwu Guard. In 998 Zhang repeatedly requested retirement. He was granted the title Grand Preceptor of the Heir Apparent and assigned a sinecure in the western capital Luoyang. His grandson Zhang Wenwei, then serving as Assistant Director of the Court of Judicial Review, remained nearby in Luoyang to care for him.

In the winter of 999 the Khitan invaded and Zhenzong prepared to travel north. Treating Zhang as an experienced veteran, the emperor summoned him to a private hall, gave him a seat, and asked about frontier defense. Because Zhang was too old to accompany the expedition, he was left in charge as chief patrol commissioner of the inner and outer districts of the eastern capital. In 1000 he was appointed Acting Grand Preceptor, Military Commissioner of Zhangde Circuit, and administrator of Tianxiong, but soon allowed to return to his home command because of age. He died that autumn at seventy-three. The court sent palace envoy Feng Shougui to escort his coffin back to the capital, posthumously appointed him Secretariat Director, and promoted five of his grandsons.

Major Activities

The Battle of Gaoping

In 954, Northern Han allied with the Khitan and invaded, and Chai Rong personally campaigned. When Later Zhou generals Fan Aineng and He Hui fled at Gaoping, Zhang Yongde and Zhao Kuangyin each led two thousand palace troops in a counterattack. Zhang's men were skilled at shooting to the left from horseback; the two commanders advanced separately and routed the Northern Han force, accepting the surrender of more than seven thousand soldiers. The victory rescued Later Zhou from a critical situation and established Zhang's position in the palace army. Afterward he urged Chai Rong to punish fleeing generals severely in order to restore military discipline, advice the emperor adopted by executing Fan and He.

Southern Campaign and Avenging His Father

Zhang's father Zhang Ying had been killed by subordinates including Cao Cheng, who fled to Southern Tang. In 955 Zhang volunteered for the campaign against Southern Tang both in service of the state and with the intention of avenging his father. At Shouchun he used exhausted troops as bait and elite cavalry in ambush to defeat Liu Renzhan. In 956 Liu, seeking to delay the Zhou assault, sent Cao Cheng and two others in cages to the Zhou camp. Chai Rong handed them to Zhang, allowing him to avenge his father's death.

Breaking the Eighteen Camps at Zijin Mountain

In 956 Zhang and Zhao Kuangyin led the vanguard to Zijin Mountain and confronted eighteen well-defended Southern Tang camps. Zhang concealed strong bows and crossbows on high ground west of the fortifications, while Zhao feigned attack and retreat. When Tang troops abandoned their camp to pursue, Zhang sprang the ambush and rode into the enemy position. The victory demonstrated close tactical coordination between the two men.

River Warfare against Southern Tang

Southern Tang forces relied on river fighting and sent large tower ships downstream with fire ships intended to burn the Later Zhou floating bridge. Zhang first took advantage of a sudden reversal of wind to attack, then sent skilled swimmers beneath enemy vessels at night to bind them together with iron chains, making them unable to maneuver. Many enemy troops drowned and dozens of large ships were captured. Zhang rewarded the swimmers with his own gold belt and later strengthened the floating bridge by stretching iron chains across the Huai and linking them with massive timbers.

The “Inspector-General Will Become Emperor” Affair

In 958, while the Later Zhou army was returning from a northern expedition and camping at Chanyuan, Chai Rong discovered a wooden tablet reading “the Inspector-General will become emperor.” Zhang was therefore stripped of military command, and Zhao Kuangyin replaced him as Inspector-General of the Palace Command. The episode became a famous puzzle in Later Zhou political history. Although Zhang lost command of the palace army, the removal also kept him out of the center of the Chenqiao Mutiny the following year, allowing him to continue to enjoy favor under Song.

Strategic Advice against Northern Han

In 960 Emperor Taizu asked Zhang how to conquer Northern Han. Zhang advised against a direct assault and proposed annual mobile raids to disrupt agriculture together with covert efforts to cut Northern Han off from Khitan support. Taizu approved. The plan reflected the strategic judgment of an experienced frontier commander.

Frontier Service in Old Age

Even under Emperor Taizong, when already advanced in age, Zhang successively administered Cang, Xiong, and Ding prefectures. In 988 he served as formation commissioner of the two Hebei routes and fought Khitan forces around Ding Prefecture. In 999, at age seventy-two, Emperor Zhenzong still summoned him for strategic advice during another Khitan invasion and entrusted him with the defense of the eastern capital.

Personal Relations

Family

• Zhang Ying, father: Defense Commissioner of An Prefecture, killed by subordinate Cao Cheng.
• Lady Ma, biological mother: divorced from Zhang Ying.
• Lady Liu, stepmother: Zhang Yongde became known for filial conduct toward her.
• Princess Shou'an, fourth daughter of Guo Wei, wife: later Grand Princess of Jin.
• Zhang Wenwei, grandson: Assistant Director of the Court of Judicial Review.

Rulers

• Guo Wei, father-in-law: Emperor Taizu of Later Zhou; married his daughter to Zhang and promoted Zhang into official life.
• Chai Rong: Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou; relied on Zhang as a palace-army commander after Gaoping, but later removed his military command after the “Inspector-General will become emperor” affair.
• Zhao Kuangyin: Emperor Taizu of Song; fought alongside Zhang at Gaoping and Zijin Mountain and treated him with exceptional courtesy after the founding of Song.
• Zhao Guangyi: Emperor Taizong of Song; under his reign Zhang was impeached and demoted for unauthorized trading and smuggling.
• Zhao Heng: Emperor Zhenzong; summoned Zhang for frontier advice and entrusted him with defense of the eastern capital.

Colleagues

• Li Chongjin: nephew of Guo Wei and another leading Later Zhou military figure, associated with command of the imperial guards while Zhang commanded the Palace Command.
• Fu Yanqing: campaigned with Zhang after Gaoping and advanced to Xinkou to cut Khitan reinforcements.
• Han Lingkun: was under pressure at Yangzhou when Zhang was ordered to reinforce him.
• Tian Chongjin: replaced by Zhang as administrator of Zhen Prefecture.
• Wang Sizong: Fiscal Commissioner who reported Zhang for tea trading and sheep smuggling.

Opponents

• Liu Renzhan: prominent Southern Tang commander who fought Zhang repeatedly around Shouchun.
• Lin Renzhao: Southern Tang commander defeated by Zhang in river warfare.
• Cao Cheng and two others: killers of Zhang's father, later sent in cages to the Later Zhou camp and executed by Zhang.

Historical Assessment

Five Dynasties and Contemporary Views

• Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, Chai Rong: after hearing Zhang's advice following the Battle of Gaoping, reportedly threw his pillow to the ground and loudly praised him, showing strong approval of Zhang's judgment. (History of Song, vol. 255)
• Emperor Taizu of Song, Zhao Kuangyin: after the establishment of Song, summoned Zhang to the rear garden, reminisced with him, drank from large cups, and repeatedly called him “imperial son-in-law” rather than by name, treating him as an old comrade. (History of Song, vol. 255)
• Chang Si: after the meeting at Lu Prefecture, lamented that he had nearly ruined a great affair, reflecting Zhang's political judgment. (History of Song, vol. 255)

Song and Yuan Periods

• The History of Song, compiled under Toghto and others, included Zhang in the biographies and described in detail his campaigns and service under three Song emperors, treating him as an important commander of the Five Dynasties and early Song.
• The History of Song also notes that he “served his stepmother Lady Liu and was known for filial conduct.”
• Song anecdotal writings frequently recorded his earlier ties with Zhao Kuangyin and treated him as one of the emperor's old associates from before the founding of the dynasty.

Ming and Qing Periods

• Wang Fuzhi, in Song Lun, discussed the “Inspector-General will become emperor” affair and regarded Zhang's removal from military command as Chai Rong's effort to prevent future danger, highlighting the sensitive relationship between palace-army commanders and imperial power in the Five Dynasties.
• Zhao Yi, in Notes on the Twenty-Two Histories, observed that Five Dynasties generals were often overbearing and that Zhang's ability to preserve his status through repeated regime changes and serve three Song emperors was unusual.

Modern Period

• Modern historians often treat Zhang as a key figure in the institutional development of the palace army from the Five Dynasties into the early Song. His office as Inspector-General of the Palace Command is directly connected to the background of the Chenqiao Mutiny.
• Scholars interpret the “Inspector-General will become emperor” wooden tablet in different ways, some seeing it as evidence of Chai Rong's suspicion and others as a possible plot by Zhao Kuangyin's group. Zhang's role remains a frequent subject of discussion.
• Zhang's performance at the Battle of Gaoping is often treated as a representative example of Five Dynasties cavalry tactics, particularly the effective use of mounted archery.