Yao Qisheng

Biography

Family Background and Early Years

Yao Qisheng, courtesy name Xizhi and art name Youan, was a native of Kuaiji in Zhejiang. He was born in 1624, the fourth year of the Tianqi era. From youth he had high ambitions, a forthright temperament, and a chivalrous disposition. Under the Ming he was a local licentiate.

In the early Shunzhi era, after Qing armies had occupied Jiangnan, Yao traveled to Tongzhou in Northern Zhili and was insulted by a local strongman. In anger he went to a Qing military camp and requested an opportunity to serve. He was appointed acting magistrate of Tongzhou. Upon taking office, he immediately arrested the strongman, had him beaten to death, and then abandoned his post. The episode illustrates the fierce and impulsively chivalrous side of his character as described in the source.

On his way home after leaving office, Yao passed through Xiaoshan and encountered two Qing soldiers abducting a woman. Pretending to reason with them, he seized a sword when they were off guard, killed the two soldiers, rescued the woman, and returned her to her family. The Draft History of Qing explicitly records the incident as a characteristic example of his early chivalrous conduct. In 1659, the sixteenth year of the Shunzhi era, Yao attached himself to the registration of a clansman and was enrolled in the Han Bordered Red Banner.

Xiangshan Magistrate and Commercial Years

In 1663, the second year of the Kangxi era, Yao took the Eight Banners provincial examination and placed first. He was appointed magistrate of Xiangshan in Guangdong. Because Xiangshan lay on the coast, its previous magistrate had been imprisoned for a fiscal deficit amounting to tens of thousands of taels of silver. On assuming office, Yao wrote to the provincial authorities and repaid the deficit on his predecessor's behalf.

Yao achieved a record of effective administration in Xiangshan. In 1669, the eighth year of the Kangxi era, he was impeached and dismissed for opening the maritime prohibition without authorization. He then spent seven years in commerce in Guangdong, accumulating wealth. This experience later gave him the resources to donate funds for military recruitment and to finance military expenditures from his own means.

Rise During the Revolt of the Three Feudatories

In 1674, the thirteenth year of the Kangxi era, Geng Jingzhong, Prince of Jingnan, rebelled in Fujian. His troops entered Zhejiang and seized the prefectural city of Wenzhou and counties under Taizhou and Chuzhou. The Kangxi Emperor ordered Prince Kang Jieshu to lead a campaign against him.

Yao and his son Yao Yi donated family wealth, recruited several hundred strong soldiers, and went to serve under Prince Kang. Yao was appointed acting magistrate of Zhuji and, together with garrison officer He Qing, suppressed bandits at Zilang Mountain.

In 1675, the fourteenth year of the Kangxi era, Prince Kang reported Yao's merits to the court, and Yao was exceptionally promoted to assistant intendant of the Wenzhou-Chuzhou Circuit in Zhejiang. He then followed commander Lahada in suppressing rebel troops in Songyang and Xuanping.

In 1676, the fifteenth year of the Kangxi era, Yao cooperated with deputy commander Woshen, general Chen Shikai, and others in attacking Geng Jingzhong's forces at Shitang, burning their timber fortifications and inflicting heavy losses before recovering Yunhe County. In October, Yao and his son followed Prince Kang's army through Xianxia Pass into Fujian. With his position collapsing, Geng Jingzhong surrendered. Yao was promoted for merit to Provincial Administration Commissioner of Fujian.

At this time Zheng Jin (Zheng Jing), son of Zheng Chenggong, occupied Zhangzhou, Quanzhou, and Xinghua, and Qing forces moved against him. Han Daren, a fierce general under Wu Sangui known as the “Little Marquis of Huaiyin,” entered Tingzhou in Fujian from Ganzhou in Jiangxi and attempted to join Zheng Jin. Yao went to persuade him to surrender. Han capitulated with his troops, and Yao selected three thousand picked men from them for his personal force.

As Governor-General of Fujian

In 1677, the sixteenth year of the Kangxi era, Yao followed Prince Kang in capturing Shaowu and Xinghua and fully recovering the Zhangzhou and Quanzhou regions, after which Zheng Jin fled back to Xiamen.

In May 1678, the seventeenth year of the Kangxi era, Governor-General Lang Tingzuo reported that Yao and his son Yao Yi had repeatedly won distinction and had personally spent 50,000 taels of silver on feeding troops, purchasing horses, and procuring armor, bows, and arrows. The Kangxi Emperor issued an edict commending him and promoted him to Governor-General of Fujian.

Soon after taking office, Yao submitted the “Ten Memorials on Pacifying the Sea,” laying out methods for troop deployment and campaigning: he requested that soldiers from the Funing command cooperate with Eight Banners troops and Zhejiang forces to attack enemy positions around Quanzhou; that forces from Quzhou, Ganzhou, and Chaozhou attack around Zhangzhou; that pay and rations be provided to surrendered officers and soldiers to secure their loyalty; that he personally donate grain and rice to recruit five thousand additional governor-general's troops; that twenty capable civil and military officials from Zhejiang be recommended for service in Fujian; that the authorities buy ten thousand shi of grain and five thousand shi of rice at higher prices to stock military supplies; that forces guard strategic routes and stations be established for transporting provisions; that the general commands of Zhangpu and Tong'an be restored; that Fujian's regular establishment be enlarged by 10,800 soldiers; that officers be strictly forbidden to pad the rolls with personal servants; and that clear rewards and punishments for victory and defeat in battle be announced to strengthen morale. The memorials were referred to the princes and high officials for deliberation. Except for the proposals to transfer the three-route forces and increase the regular establishment, the requests were approved.

In July, Yao and Haicheng Duke Huang Fangshi advanced from Yongfu and recovered Pinghe and Zhangping counties. Zheng commander Liu Guoxuan and others advanced on Quanzhou and established a camp at Wugong Ridge. Yao led picked men into battle while General Laita, commander Woshen, and others attacked from the flanks. They broke successive Zheng camps and killed more than ten enemy officers, including Zheng Ying and Liu Zhengxi. Liu Guoxuan fled to Haicheng. Yao followed up by taking Changtai County and, for his military merit, was advanced to the first rank.

In September, Yao sent his son Yao Yi against Tong'an. The enemy abandoned the city, and the Qing forces killed the opposing deputy general Lin Qin and others. In October, Yao, Deputy Commander Jiletabu, Commander-in-Chief Yang Jie, and others attacked Haicheng, repeatedly defeating Liu Guoxuan at Jiangdong Bridge and Chaogou.

In 1679, the eighteenth year of the Kangxi era, Liu Guoxuan, Wu Shu, He You, and others occupied Guotang and Ouxitou and attempted to cut Jiangdong Bridge in order to seize Changtai. Yao, Laita, Yang Jie, and Governor Wu Xingzuo cooperated in pursuit and inflicted a major defeat on Zheng forces, eventually receiving the surrender of more than four hundred officials and over fourteen thousand soldiers appointed by the Zheng regime. In May, Liu Guoxuan and Wu Shu led more than ten thousand men in another attempt to take Jiangdong Bridge and Liushan Stockade. Yao, Laita, and Shi Diaosheng defeated them and pursued them to Taiping Bridge and Chaogou, killing more than one thousand.

In February 1680, the nineteenth year of the Kangxi era, Yao, Laita, Yang Jie, and Shi Diaosheng directed the recapture of Haicheng County. Commander-in-Chief Wan Zhengse took Haitan. Yao, Laita, and generals Zhao Deshou and Huang Dalai divided their forces into seven columns and broke nineteen enemy strongholds. Other troops crossed the sea and captured Kinmen and Xiamen, receiving the surrender of Zheng commanders Zhu Tiangui, Yang Biao, and others. Zheng Jin withdrew to Penghu, and the Qing recovered all previously lost prefectures and counties. In recognition of his merit, Yao was promoted to Minister of War and Grand Guardian of the Heir Apparent.

Later Years and Death

In April 1681, the twentieth year of the Kangxi era, Xu Yuanwen, Censor-in-chief of the Left, submitted a memorial impeaching Yao and listed seven allegedly “shocking” matters: that he had improperly requested a loan of 120,000 taels from the treasury for profit-making commerce; that the more than 150,000 taels he reported donating to the army were of unclear origin and perhaps derived from withholding military pay or squeezing the people; that he had demolished private houses to build gardens and waterside pavilions, employing one thousand laborers daily, and had forced a local notable's granddaughter to become his concubine; that he had obstructed an advance from Haitan, first sustaining the enemy and later pursuing excessive warfare; that he had proposed sending newly surrendered men across dangerous seas under the naval commander and, when his arguments failed, volunteered himself for the expedition merely to silence criticism; that he had knelt before Vice Minister Wendai alleging that Wan Zhengse had secretly arranged Zhu Tiangui's surrender in exchange for abandoning Haitan; and that kneeling before ministry officials was conduct unworthy of a great minister.

The Kangxi Emperor ordered Yao to respond. Yao defended himself point by point. He said the proposal to borrow treasury funds for commerce had been discussed with Governor Wu Xingzuo because so many men had surrendered that funds for rewards were insufficient, and previous high officials such as Li Shuaitai and Hong Chengchou had also borrowed treasury funds for similar purposes; although motivated by public service, he admitted such a minor matter should not have troubled the emperor. The more than 150,000 taels he donated, he said, came from seven years of commerce after his dismissal in Xiangshan, the sale of ancestral property in Zhejiang, and loans from relatives and friends. Repairs to the governor-general's office used only several dozen artisans each day, all paid wages and rations, and did not involve demolishing private houses or employing a thousand workers daily. He denied forcing Dai Ji's granddaughter to become a concubine and said Dai had served in an educational post by appointment of the previous governor-general Lang Tingzuo. He maintained that his plan to attack Taiwan had been consistent from the outset and had not been proposed only after Xiamen was taken. He said Wendai's information came from Zhu Tiangui rather than from him. As for kneeling before ministry officials, he said that he had actually knelt toward the imperial palace to swear that he would not betray the emperor's favor. The memorial was received and referred to the ministry for notice.

In February 1682, the twenty-first year of the Kangxi era, Yao received the hereditary rank of Commandant of Cavalry with an additional Cloud Cavalry Commandant for his role in capturing Haicheng, Kinmen, and Xiamen.

By then Zheng Jing had died and his son Zheng Keshuang had succeeded him as Prince of Yanping, while major decisions were made by Liu Guoxuan and others. The Zheng regime sent an envoy proposing to become a tributary subject without shaving the forehead or coming ashore, on the model of Ryukyu and Korea. Yao reported the proposal, but the Kangxi Emperor rejected it and ordered naval commander Shi Lang to take Taiwan.

In June 1683, the twenty-second year of the Kangxi era, Shi Lang's fleet took Penghu. In August, Shi Lang took Taiwan, and Zheng Keshuang, Liu Guoxuan, and others surrendered. Yao remained in Fujian, managing logistics, grain, and military pay, and did not cross the sea to Penghu. After Taiwan was pacified, he withdrew his troops to Fuzhou.

That November, an old abscess on Yao's back recurred and he soon died, aged sixty.

In September 1684, the twenty-third year of the Kangxi era, the ministries concluded that 47,000-plus taels of treasury funds for Yao's construction of ships and military equipment had been falsely reported and should be recovered. Remembering Yao's service, the Kangxi Emperor remitted the claim.

Major Activities

Suppression of Geng Jingzhong's Rebellion

Yao's rise during the Revolt of the Three Feudatories began when he entered the service of Prince Kang Jieshu. He donated family wealth to recruit troops and joined the army. In Zhejiang he suppressed bandits at Zilang Mountain, followed Lahada in taking Songyang and Xuanping, cooperated with Woshen and others in attacking rebel positions at Shitang and recovering Yunhe, and accompanied Prince Kang's army through Xianxia Pass into Fujian, eventually helping bring about Geng Jingzhong's surrender. He also persuaded Wu Sangui's fierce general Han Daren to surrender and incorporated three thousand picked men into his own force, strengthening Qing military power in Fujian.

Military Administration of Fujian's Coastal Defense

As Governor-General of Fujian, Yao faced strong military pressure from the Zheng regime and adopted a combined strategy of “suppression and pacification.” Militarily, he fought Liu Guoxuan's forces repeatedly at Wugong Ridge, Jiangdong Bridge, Chaogou, and elsewhere, gradually recovering Changtai, Pinghe, Zhangping, Haicheng, and other counties before taking Kinmen and Xiamen and driving Zheng forces from the Fujian coast. In pacification efforts, he received the surrender of more than four hundred Zheng-appointed officials and over fourteen thousand soldiers, as well as commanders such as Zhu Tiangui and Yang Biao, thereby weakening the Zheng regime from within.

Strategy for Pacifying Taiwan

After becoming Governor-General of Fujian, Yao submitted the “Ten Memorials on Pacifying the Sea,” presenting a systematic program for troop deployment, campaigning, surrender policy, provisions, and rewards and punishments. Its core was the combined use of military suppression and inducement to surrender—recovering lost territory while persuading wavering enemy commanders to defect. The source states that this strategy suited conditions in the early Qing and was adopted by the Kangxi Emperor, laying groundwork for the Qing court's eventual recovery of Taiwan.

Recommendation of Shi Lang and Provision of Military Funds

Yao repeatedly memorialized in favor of appointing Shi Lang as naval commander, and Shi was eventually employed. During Shi's naval campaign against Taiwan, Yao handled logistical support in Fujian, raising grain and military pay and overseeing the construction of ships and military equipment. The sums he personally contributed were large: by 1678 alone he had already donated 50,000 taels, and later reported a further contribution of more than 150,000 taels. After Taiwan was pacified, Shi Lang was enfeoffed as Marquis of Jinghai, while Yao had previously been made Minister of War and Grand Guardian of the Heir Apparent and had received the hereditary rank of Commandant of Cavalry.

Concern for His Native Region

Although Yao served for many years in Fujian, he also took an interest in construction in his native Shaoxing. He contributed funds to rebuild prefectural and county schools and to water-control works such as the Sanjiang Sluice and Xijiang Embankment.

His career around the pacification of Taiwan can be set out by year: on his merits in recovering Haicheng, Jinmen and Xiamen he was in the second month of 1682 (twenty-first year of Kangxi), at fifty-nine, granted the hereditary rank of cavalry commander with an additional cloud-riding rank; in the sixth month of 1683 (twenty-second year) Shi Lang took the Penghu islands while Yao Qisheng was in charge of logistics in Fujian; in the eighth month of the same year Shi Lang took Taiwan and Zheng Keshuang surrendered, and he led his troops back to Fuzhou; in the eleventh month of that year an abscess on his back broke out and he died in office at Fuzhou; in the ninth month of 1684 (twenty-third year) the board proposed recovering more than forty-seven thousand taels of irregularly spent funds, and Emperor Kangxi remitted the sum in consideration of his services. His reorganisation of military supply, his resettlement of those who surrendered and his plans for the campaign were a key element in the Qing conduct of war on the southeast coast, while his division of labour with Shi Lang around the Penghu campaign shows that the taking of Taiwan was the work of several hands and cannot be attributed to one man.

His measures also included winning over the old followers of the Zheng house and settling those who submitted: before the court decided to take Taiwan he both reorganised military supply and used the coastal gentry and former acquaintances to attract them over, so that the Zheng group was divided; around the Penghu campaign he was in charge of grain, ship materials and the resettlement of those who surrendered in Fujian, while Shi Lang had sole charge of operations. As to his own end, after the campaign a board proposed recovering more than forty-seven thousand taels of irregular expenditure, which Emperor Kangxi remitted, showing that his accounts were not wholly clear but that the court still took his services into account, an outcome unusual in the financial accountability of the early Qing.

The accusations against him and his answers are also recorded: in the fourth month of 1681 (twentieth year of Kangxi) the left censor-in-chief Xu Yuanwen impeached him on seven counts, to each of which he replied in his own defence, and in the second month of the following year his merits in recovering Haicheng, Jinmen and Xiamen were recognised with the hereditary rank of cavalry commander and an additional cloud-riding rank. After the pacification of Taiwan he conducted the settlement in Fujian until an abscess on his back broke out and he died in office at Fuzhou in the eleventh month of the same year. The whole course, from impeachment and defence to the remission of the sums demanded after his death, shows that early Qing accountability towards frontier governors was applied together with indulgence, and that his end turned on the court's overall judgement of the taking of Taiwan.

The proposals made after his death and Emperor Kangxi's disposition of them closed the question of his accounts.

Personal Relations

• Yao Yi (son): Served in the army with his father, repeatedly distinguished himself, and once led troops against Tong'an
• Huang Xigun (brother-in-law): Served as an examiner in Jiangnan in 1651, the eighth year of the Shunzhi era, and rose in the early Qing to Grand Secretary of the Eastern Pavilion
• Jieshu (Prince Kang): Yao entered his service and was repeatedly recommended and promoted under him
• Lahada (commander): Yao followed him in suppressing Songyang and Xuanping
• Woshen (deputy commander): Cooperated in attacking Shitang and recovering Yunhe
• Chen Shikai (general): Cooperated in military operations
• Laita (general): Cooperated in operations and flanked Liu Guoxuan
• Yang Jie (commander-in-chief): Cooperated in attacking Haicheng
• Wu Xingzuo (governor): Cooperated in pursuing Zheng forces and discussed borrowing treasury funds for commerce
• Lang Tingzuo (former governor-general): Memorialized the court in praise of Yao's military merit
• Kangxi Emperor: Yao's ruler, who commended him, ordered him to answer impeachment charges, and later remitted recovery of disputed funds
• Geng Jingzhong: Rebel commander in the Revolt of the Three Feudatories; persuaded by Yao to surrender
• Zheng Jin (Zheng Jing): Leader of the Ming-Zheng regime who occupied Zhangzhou, Quanzhou, Xiamen, and other places and repeatedly fought Yao
• Liu Guoxuan: Senior Zheng commander who repeatedly fought Yao in the Zhangzhou and Haicheng regions
• Han Daren: General under Wu Sangui, persuaded by Yao to surrender
• Xu Yuanwen (Censor-in-chief of the Left): Impeached Yao on seven major charges in the twentieth year of the Kangxi era

Historical Assessment

Qing Period / Contemporary

• The Draft History of Qing described Yao as someone who “in youth delighted in chivalrous conduct,” praised his military ability and success in inducing surrenders, and recorded that he “fed troops and bought horses, procured armor, bows, and arrows, and spent fifty thousand taels of silver, all from his own funds,” for which the Kangxi Emperor commended him.
• Xu Yuanwen, Censor-in-chief of the Left, impeached Yao as “arbitrary, unrestrained, treacherous, and deceitful,” listing seven allegedly “shocking” matters. This represented contemporary criticism of Yao's manner of conduct.
• After Yao's death, when the ministries proposed recovering more than 47,000 taels in allegedly inflated treasury expenditures, the Kangxi Emperor remitted the sum because he “remembered his service,” providing a measure of official recognition of his achievements.

Late Qing and Republican Period

• Modern-era historians often focused on Yao's role in the unification of Taiwan, regarding him as one of the key figures in the campaign and particularly emphasizing his raising of military funds and recommendation of Shi Lang.
• The Republican-period Draft History of Qing included him in its biographies and recorded his life in considerable detail, preserving relatively extensive source material.

Modern and Contemporary Scholarship

• Contemporary scholars of Taiwan history often regard Yao as an important driving force in the Kangxi court's unification of Taiwan and credit his military management and pacification strategy as Governor-General of Fujian.
• Some scholars point to tensions between Yao and Shi Lang, arguing that Yao did not receive commensurate rewards after the Taiwan campaign and that later narratives often overshadowed his contributions with Shi Lang's greater fame.
• The claim that Yao Qisheng and Shi Lang were related by marriage is not recorded in the official histories and is described as a later genealogical embellishment; scholars treat it cautiously.