Wang Shuwen

Biography

Family Background and Early Years

Wang was born in 753 in Shanyin County, Yue Prefecture. He claimed to descend from the Former Qin chief councillor Wang Meng, but the assertion is not supported by reliable evidence and may have been self-enhancing. His father, whose personal name is not given, had served as commandant of Rencheng and military assistant in the Left Jinwu Guard. His mother was Lady Liu of Hejian, daughter of Liu Shenyan, who had served as magistrate of Xianju County and secretary-general of Guang Prefecture. Wang thus came from a lower-to-middle-ranking official family rather than an established aristocratic clan.

In his youth Wang liked reading and had some knowledge of poetry and classical texts, but he was especially interested in government. He was highly skilled at go and for this reason was summoned to the Hanlin Academy as a chess attendant. The post was not high in rank but allowed direct access to the imperial court, and through it Wang gradually gained visibility in palace politics.

East Palace Reader and the Crown Prince's Trust

During Emperor Dezong's reign, Wang was appointed reader to Crown Prince Li Song. Li Song was Dezong's eldest son and is described as humane but chronically ill. Wang frequently discussed politics and affairs of the realm with him and understood the prince's dissatisfaction with abuses under Dezong. He therefore emphasized popular hardship and the strengths and weaknesses of government policy, gradually winning the prince's confidence.

On one occasion the crown prince and his readers discussed abuses of the Palace Market. Li Song said that when he next saw the emperor he would explain the problem fully. The other readers praised his benevolence, but Wang remained silent. After they left, Li Song asked why. Wang replied that a crown prince serving his father should, beyond the ritual inquiries into food and health, avoid intervening on his own in external government matters. If malicious men accused the prince of trying to win popular support while the emperor had reigned for many years, how could he defend himself? Li Song was impressed and thanked him, saying that without Wang he would not have heard such advice. From then on the prince relied on Wang even more for palace matters.

Aware that his own position was insecure, Wang used his role in the East Palace to cultivate prominent men including Wei Zhiyi, Lü Wen, Li Jingjian, Han Ye, Han Tai, Chen Jian, Liu Zongyuan, Liu Yuxi, and more than ten others, treating them as close political allies. Through his associates he also brought in Ling Zhun, Cheng Yi, and others. Some military governors and court officials allegedly offered him bribes in hopes of gaining his favor. A political group centered on Wang gradually took shape and later became the base for the reform movement.

The Yongzhen Reform and Control of Government

In the first month of 805 Emperor Dezong died and Crown Prince Li Song became Emperor Shunzong. Shunzong had suffered a stroke and could not personally manage ordinary court affairs. He remained inside the palace, attended by the eunuch Li Zhongyan and the favored woman Niu Zhaorong, while memorials from officials were decided behind a screen. The unusual political situation created an opening for Wang.

Wang was summoned into the palace and appointed Hanlin Academician. Through Wang Pi, Li Zhongyan, and Niu Zhaorong he gained effective control over court decisions. He recommended his friend Wei Zhiyi as chief councillor and concurrently supervised state finance as deputy commissioner of salt and iron. During only a few months in power, Wang's group introduced a series of reforms:

• removed forty-two redundant Hanlin posts involving medical specialists, physiognomists, astrologers, guessing games, and related functions in order to reduce expenditure;
• demoted Li Shi, governor of Jingzhao, to secretary-general of Tong Prefecture; Li had been a favorite of Emperor Dezong and was accused of corruption and abuse, and residents of the capital reportedly celebrated his fall;
• prohibited levies beyond the regular taxes and barred officials from presenting private contributions to the emperor;
• abolished the Palace Market, placing procurement for the palace under Jingzhao officials and preventing eunuchs from buying goods outside under the palace's name;
• prohibited abuses by the Five Bureaus Youths associated with the falcon, hawk, eagle, sparrowhawk, and dog bureaus in Chang'an and ordered violations investigated;
• ended the monthly payments made to the emperor by the salt-and-iron commissioner;
• released 300 palace women and 600 female performers of the music bureau;
• recalled upright officials such as Lu Zhi and Yang Cheng who had been demoted for remonstrating.

The measures were popular; people in the markets cheered and public sentiment was greatly pleased. Yet the reforms threatened the interests of the eunuch establishment and regional military governors, especially when Wang tried to take military command away from eunuchs. He appointed the veteran Fan Xichao as Military Commissioner over the Shence western-garrison field commands and Han Tai as field-army marshal, intending to take control of the Shence Army. The eunuchs initially did not recognize the plan, but when frontier commanders began reporting to the eunuch commanders of the Shence forces before leaving their posts, the eunuchs realized military authority was about to be transferred and secretly ordered commanders not to surrender it. Wang's plan failed.

Failure, Exile, and Death

Wang's reform program and concentration of power provoked strong opposition among eunuchs and some court officials. Eunuchs led by Ju Wenzhen joined with men including Pei Jun and compelled Emperor Shunzong to appoint Li Chun, Prince of Guangling, as crown prince. Wang became deeply worried and recited Du Fu's lines from “The Chancellor of Shu” about a campaign failing before victory and heroes shedding tears, choking with emotion.

In the fifth month of 805 Wang lost the title Hanlin Academician and was allowed to enter the Hanlin only once every three to five days. In the seventh month Shunzong made the crown prince regent, while Wang had to return home to mourn his mother. In the eighth month Shunzong was forced to abdicate and Li Chun became Emperor Xianzong. Xianzong immediately demoted Wang to judicial assistant of Yu Prefecture. Wang Pi was sent down as military aide of Kai Prefecture and soon died of illness. Han Tai, Chen Jian, Liu Zongyuan, Liu Yuxi, Han Ye, Ling Zhun, Cheng Yi, Wei Zhiyi, and others were successively sent as sima to eight remote prefectures, giving rise to the label Two Princes and Eight Sima.

In 806 Wang was ordered to die in exile. Only 146 days had passed from his ascent to power to the collapse of his political project. His career was brief, but his reformist ambitions and tragic fate remain subjects of historical reflection.

Major Activities

Leadership of the Yongzhen Reform

Wang's central historical activity was leadership of the Yongzhen Reform. After Emperor Shunzong's accession, he worked with Wang Pi, Liu Zongyuan, Liu Yuxi, and others to introduce political, economic, and military changes targeting problems inherited from Emperor Dezong's reign. These included ending the Palace Market, restraining the Five Bureaus Youths, demoting corrupt officials, stopping extraordinary contributions, releasing palace women, and recalling upright officials. The measures won popular support. Wang also attempted to take military power from the eunuchs; although unsuccessful, the effort shows the breadth of his intended reform.

Control of State Finance

Wang concurrently handled state finance and served as deputy commissioner of salt and iron, giving him effective influence over national revenue. He held that grain and money were the fundamental resources of the state. He used financial control to advance reform, ended monthly money payments from the salt-and-iron administration to the emperor, and prohibited tribute-like contributions by local officials, reducing burdens on the population. These measures benefited public finance and livelihood but threatened the interests of eunuchs and military governors and contributed to his political isolation.

Formation of a Political Group

While serving in the East Palace, Wang secretly cultivated Wei Zhiyi, Liu Zongyuan, Liu Yuxi, Han Tai, Chen Jian, and other prominent scholars, building a political group around himself. He later recommended Wei as chief councillor, and members of the group supported one another in implementing reforms. Many eventually became victims of the Two Princes and Eight Sima purge and were sent to remote prefectures.

Attempt to Seize Eunuch Military Power

The most dangerous measure in Wang's program was his attempt to remove control of the Shence Army from the eunuchs. He made Fan Xichao Military Commissioner over the Shence western-garrison field commands and Han Tai field-army marshal in order to assume command. The plan was blocked once the eunuchs became aware and was one of the immediate causes of their counterattack against Wang's political group.

Conflict with Regional Military Governors

Wang also clashed with Wei Gao, Military Commissioner of Xichuan. Wei sought through Liu Pi to gain control of the Three Sichuan regions. Wang firmly refused and even considered executing Liu Pi. Wei Gao therefore aligned himself with the crown prince's faction and became an important force in Wang's downfall.

The course of his administration and demotion can be set out by month: in the first month of 805 (twenty-first year of Zhenyuan) Emperor Dezong died and the crown prince Li Song came to the throne as Emperor Shunzong, and Wang Shuwen was appointed academician of the Hanlin Academy and soon given concurrent charge of the finance commission and the salt and iron vice commissionership, holding real financial power; in the second month of the same year he and Wang Pei, Liu Zongyuan and Liu Yuxi carried out reforms, abolishing the palace market, forbidding the harassment of the people by the five-fang attendants, demoting Li Shi, governor of Jingzhao, and stopping the monthly payments of the salt and iron commissioners; in the third month the eunuch Ju Wenzhen and others forced Shunzong to make Li Chun crown prince, and Wang Shuwen broke with Wei Gao, military commissioner of Xichuan; in the fifth month he was stripped of the Hanlin post and allowed to enter the academy only once every few days; in the seventh month he went home to mourn his mother and the crown prince Li Chun supervised the government; in the eighth month Shunzong was forced to abdicate, Emperor Xianzong came to the throne and Wang Shuwen was demoted to adjutant of Yuzhou; in 806 (first year of Yuanhe) he was ordered to die at his place of exile. The reform lasted less than half a year, and the concentration of its measures and their abrupt termination offer a concentrated view of the relation between the central government, the eunuchs and the provinces in the middle and late Tang.

The reforms ranged widely and moved very fast: abolishing the palace market and forbidding the harassment of the people by the five-fang attendants was a reform of palace supply and marketing; demoting Li Shi, governor of Jingzhao, and stopping the monthly payments of the salt and iron commissioners concerned official discipline and finance; the release of palace women and the recall of worthy ministers had the character of clearing the political scene. In personnel terms, his group relied on the Hanlin and the finance and salt-and-iron offices and bypassed the normal chief-councillor procedures, which was both the source of its speed and the handle that allowed the eunuchs and provincial commanders to strike back so quickly. After his demotion and death, Liu Zongyuan, Liu Yuxi and others were successively banished as adjutants of distant prefectures, the group later known as the Two Wangs and Eight Simas.

His group was finally driven from court under the name of the Two Wangs and Eight Simas and most of the Yongzhen reforms came to an end with it, yet its criticism of the palace market, the five-fang attendants and the payment of tribute continued to be cited by officials for decades afterwards.

Personal Relations

• Father — personal name unknown; commandant of Rencheng and military assistant in the Left Jinwu Guard.
• Lady Liu — mother, from Hejian; daughter of Liu Shenyan, magistrate of Xianju County and secretary-general of Guang Prefecture.
• Wang Yilun — brother.
• Wang Niao — daughter; died young in 802 at the age of twenty-three.
• Wang Pi — fellow East Palace official, paired with Wang Shuwen as the “Two Wang,” and a co-leader of the reform.
• Wei Zhiyi — close friend whom Wang recommended as chief councillor.
• Liu Zongyuan, Liu Yuxi, Han Tai, Chen Jian, Han Ye, Ling Zhun, Cheng Yi, Lü Wen, Li Jingjian, and others — political allies who were later demoted.
• Emperor Dezong of Tang — employed Wang as chess attendant and crown-prince reader.
• Emperor Shunzong of Tang — Crown Prince Li Song; trusted and promoted Wang.
• Emperor Xianzong of Tang — after taking the throne, demoted Wang and later ordered his death.
• Ju Wenzhen — eunuch leader who opposed Wang's reforms and helped organize the political counterattack.
• Wei Gao — Military Commissioner of Xichuan who broke with Wang and aligned with the crown prince's side.
• Liu Pi — subordinate of Wei Gao who came into conflict with Wang.
• Li Shi — governor of Jingzhao whom Wang demoted.

Historical Assessment

Tang and Contemporary Assessments

• The Old Book of Tang harshly criticized Wei Zhiyi and Wang Shuwen as opportunists who wished to manipulate the whole realm and mocked Liu Yuxi, Liu Zongyuan, and others for following them in pursuit of advantage.
• The New Book of Tang described Wang as a petty man who stole control of the empire and compared his seizure of power to the theft of a great bow by Yang Hu in the Spring and Autumn Annals. It condemned Liu Zongyuan and others for compromising their principles and exploiting the emperor's illness.
• Han Yu's Veritable Record of Emperor Shunzong, though critical of Wang, acknowledged that Wang was skilled at discussing government, persuasive in debate, and that many of the measures he introduced between spring and autumn were not regarded by the public as improper.

Song and Yuan Periods

• Sima Guang's Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance gives a detailed account of the rise and fall of Wang's group, recording the reforms with relative objectivity while criticizing Wang's concentration of power.
• Southern Song writer Zhang Sui, in Qianbainian Yan, defended Wang against what he saw as excessive historical condemnation, pointing to abolition of the Palace Market, rejection of extraordinary contributions, recall of Lu Zhi and Yang Cheng, demotion of Li Shi, and employment of senior ministers such as Du You and Jia Dan as reforms that corrected major abuses of the Dezong reign and recovered popular support.
• Hu Sanxing, in his Yuan commentary on the Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance, gave some approval to Wang's reforms but judged him to be a man of small capacity who became easily self-satisfied.

Ming and Qing Periods

• Feng Menglong's Zhining described Wang as an insidious petty man but did not reject every one of his reform measures.
• Wang Fuzhi's Du Tongjian Lun praised the correction of disorders from the end of Dezong's reign as beneficial to public sentiment and state discipline, while criticizing Wang as narrow in capacity, quick to become arrogant, clannish toward allies, and haughty toward opponents.
• Qing scholar Wang Mingsheng, in Critical Discussions of the Seventeen Histories, argued that Wang's policies benefited the state above and the people below and harmed principally power-seeking eunuchs and overmighty military governors.

Modern Assessments

• A modern article by Zhu Cheng on the political significance of disputes surrounding the Wang Shuwen reform faction affirmed the historical significance of the reform while arguing that its methods contributed to failure.
• Modern historians including Huang Yongnian have offered more balanced judgments, viewing the reforms as progressive in some respects but Wang's political methods as inadequate.
• Much modern scholarship treats Wang as a reformer with ideals and ambition whose failure resulted from both the limitations of his age and his own defects.