Princess Pingyang (Han dynasty)

Biography

Family Background and Early Life

Princess Pingyang was the eldest daughter of Emperor Jing of Han, Liu Qi, and Empress Wang Zhi. Wang Zhi was originally from Huaili. She had first married Jin Wangsun and had a daughter, but her mother Zang Er later arranged for her to enter the household of the Crown Prince, where she became favored by the future Emperor Jing. Wang Zhi bore three daughters and one son; the son was Liu Che, the future Emperor Wu. As the eldest daughter of Emperor Jing and Wang Zhi, Princess Pingyang grew up in the palace. In 150 BCE, the seventh year of Emperor Jing's Former Yuan period, Liu Che was made Crown Prince and Wang Zhi became Empress. As the daughter of the Empress, Princess Pingyang's status rose accordingly.

First Marriage to Cao Shou and Association with Pingyang

After reaching adulthood, Princess Pingyang married Cao Shou, Marquis of Pingyang. Cao Shou was a descendant of Cao Can, a prominent statesman of the early Han, and had inherited the title Marquis of Pingyang. Because of her marriage into the Cao family, the princess came to be known by her husband's fief as Princess Pingyang. Cao Shou served as a Palace Attendant early in Emperor Wu's reign, although neither Records of the Grand Historian nor the Book of Han records his political achievements in detail. The marriage between Princess Pingyang and Cao Shou lasted for roughly ten years; no children are recorded.

Presenting Wei Zifu and Facilitating the Rise of the Wei Clan

In 139 BCE, the second year of Jianyuan, shortly after Emperor Wu's accession, Princess Pingyang imitated the practice of Princess Guantao, Emperor Wu's paternal aunt, by selecting more than ten women from respectable families, dressing them elaborately, and keeping them in her residence for the emperor to see when he visited. Emperor Wu became interested in the singer Wei Zifu and had relations with her in his carriage before bringing her into the palace. Wei Zifu's younger brother Wei Qing also entered palace service and worked at Jianzhang Palace. This episode is recorded in Chu Shaosun's supplement to the “Hereditary House of the Imperial Relatives” in Records of the Grand Historian.

After entering the palace, Wei Zifu repeatedly received imperial favor. In 128 BCE, the first year of Yuanshuo, she gave birth to Emperor Wu's eldest son, Liu Ju, and was subsequently made Empress. Wei Qing likewise rose from serving at Jianzhang Palace and as a Palace Attendant to become General of Chariots and Cavalry; in 124 BCE, the fifth year of Yuanshuo, he was appointed General-in-Chief and placed in command of the generals. He campaigned against the Xiongnu seven times, seized territory south of the Yellow River, and took the Shuofang region, gaining outstanding military distinction. Five members of the Wei clan received marquisates, and the family became one of the most powerful in the empire. As the person who had first introduced Wei Zifu, Princess Pingyang stood at the beginning of this sequence of events.

Remarriage to Wei Qing

After Cao Shou's death, Princess Pingyang lived as a widow. According to Chu Shaosun's supplement to the “Hereditary House of the Imperial Relatives” in Records of the Grand Historian, she discussed remarriage with members of her household, who all considered General-in-Chief Wei Qing the most suitable match. The princess initially hesitated because Wei Qing had once been a mounted retainer in her household and had formerly held low status. Her attendants replied that the General-in-Chief was now extraordinarily honored. Princess Pingyang then conveyed her wish through Empress Wei, Wei Zifu, and Emperor Wu issued an order that Wei Qing marry her.

Chu Shaosun's supplementary account does not date the remarriage. Since Wei Qing became General-in-Chief in 124 BCE, the fifth year of Yuanshuo, the marriage is generally placed in or after that year. Historical sources do not record children born to Princess Pingyang and Wei Qing. Wei Qing had three sons—Wei Kang, Wei Buyi, and Wei Deng—who were all made marquises because of their father's military achievements, but their mothers are not identified in the surviving sources, so they cannot be securely attributed to Princess Pingyang.

Later Years and Death

Wei Qing died in 106 BCE, the fifth year of Yuanfeng. Princess Pingyang's subsequent activities are not recorded in the standard histories. Neither the date of her death nor her burial place is clearly documented. Later tradition holds that she was buried together with Wei Qing near the Maoling mausoleum, but the historical sources contain no explicit statement to that effect, and the claim remains conjectural.

Major Activities

Introducing Wei Zifu to the Palace

In 139 BCE, the second year of Jianyuan, Princess Pingyang gathered more than ten women from respectable families in her residence in anticipation of Emperor Wu's visit. The emperor was interested only in the singer Wei Zifu, and Princess Pingyang therefore sent Wei Zifu into the palace. Before they parted, the princess patted Wei Zifu on the back and urged her to take care of herself, strive to advance, and not forget her if she later attained high status, as recorded in Chu Shaosun's supplement to Records of the Grand Historian. Wei Zifu later became Empress and the Wei family rose to great prominence, making the princess's words appear prophetic in retrospect.

Facilitating Wei Qing's Entry into Service

Wei Qing had originally been a mounted retainer in the household of the Marquis of Pingyang. He entered the palace along with Wei Zifu and served at Jianzhang Palace. After Wei Zifu won imperial favor, Wei Qing was summoned to serve as an official at Jianzhang Palace and as a Palace Attendant, and then rose steadily through the ranks. As the person who brought Wei Zifu and Wei Qing from the marquis's household into the imperial court, Princess Pingyang was a key starting point in the rise of the Wei family.

Remarriage to Wei Qing and the Link between the Wei Clan and the Imperial House

After Cao Shou's death, Princess Pingyang, encouraged by her attendants, conveyed through Empress Wei her wish to marry Wei Qing. Emperor Wu approved. The marriage turned Wei Qing, already a military member of the imperial consort clan, into the emperor's brother-in-law and further tightened the relationship between the Wei family and the imperial house. Wei Qing later campaigned against the Xiongnu seven times and was made Marquis of Changping; his marriage to Princess Pingyang was one factor that strengthened his position at court.

Participation in the Court's Kinship Network

Princess Pingyang occupied an important position in the consort-clan network of Emperor Wu's reign. Her mother Wang Zhi was Empress Dowager, her younger brother was Emperor Wu, her first husband descended from Cao Can, her second husband was Wei Qing, and her sister-in-law was Empress Wei Zifu, Wei Qing's elder sister. Through these relationships, Princess Pingyang tightly linked the Cao, Wei, and Wang families to the imperial house. During the early part of Emperor Wu's reign, as the influence of different consort families rose and fell, she remained within the innermost circle of the court.

Personal Relations

Family

• Father: Emperor Jing of Han, Liu Qi
• Mother: Empress Wang Zhi
• Full younger brother: Emperor Wu of Han, Liu Che
• Full sisters: Princess Nangong; Princess Longlü
• First husband: Cao Shou, Marquis of Pingyang
• Second husband: General-in-Chief Wei Qing
• Sister-in-law: Empress Wei Zifu, Wei Qing's elder sister

Ruler and Court Relations

• Emperor Wu of Han, Liu Che: full younger brother, who relied on her in a number of matters
• Wei Zifu: originally a singer in Princess Pingyang's household; entered the palace through her introduction and later became Empress

Scholars and Recorders

• Chu Shaosun: late Western Han scholar who supplemented the “Hereditary House of the Imperial Relatives” in Records of the Grand Historian and recorded episodes concerning Princess Pingyang

Peers

• Princess Guantao, Liu Piao: Emperor Wu's paternal aunt; she likewise presented women to the emperor, a practice similar to Princess Pingyang's

Historical Assessment

Han and Contemporary Accounts

• Chu Shaosun's supplement to the “Hereditary House of the Imperial Relatives” in Records of the Grand Historian gives a detailed account of Princess Pingyang's presentation of Wei Zifu and her remarriage to Wei Qing. It offers little direct praise or criticism, but presents her as the starting point in the rise of the Wei consort clan.
• The “Biographies of Imperial Relatives” in the Book of Han follows Chu Shaosun's account and likewise provides no explicit judgment. Han historians generally recorded Princess Pingyang's actions factually without direct appraisal.
• Contemporary references called her “Princess Pingyang.” When she considered marrying Wei Qing, her attendants argued that “the General-in-Chief is now supremely honored,” indicating that contemporaries regarded her as a woman of sufficiently high status to match the General-in-Chief.

Song and Yuan Periods

• Sima Guang's Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance, vol. 17, records Wei Zifu's entry into the palace under the year 139 BCE, the second year of Jianyuan, but offers no extended comment.
• Song scholars Liu Ban, Liu Shu, and others, in their annotations to the Book of Han, did not offer a separate assessment of Princess Pingyang.
• Hu Sanxing of the Yuan period, annotating the Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance, identified Princess Pingyang simply as “the daughter of Emperor Jing and elder sister of Emperor Wu,” without further judgment.

Ming and Qing Periods

• Ming scholar Wang Shizhen, discussing Han consort clans in Yanshantang Bieji, mentioned Princess Pingyang's remarriage to Wei Qing despite her exalted status as a princess and treated it as one manifestation of the expanding power of consort clans during Emperor Wu's reign.
• Qing scholar Zhao Yi, in the section “Han Princesses Who Remarried” in vol. 3 of Notes on the Twenty-Two Histories, cited Princess Pingyang's remarriage to Wei Qing and argued that remarriage by Han princesses was not unusual and was not treated as shameful.
• Qing scholar Wang Mingsheng, in Critical Discussions of the Seventeen Histories, mentioned that Princess Pingyang was Wei Qing's wife and regarded the marriage as one factor helping Wei Qing remain in the position of senior general for a long period.

Modern Assessments

• Lü Simian, in his History of the Qin and Han, discussed consort-clan politics under Emperor Wu and used Princess Pingyang as an example of the emperor's use of marriage ties to maintain relationships among powerful relatives.
• Qian Mu, in his History of the Qin and Han, discussed the political role of Han princesses and cited Princess Pingyang's presentation of Wei Zifu as a form of princessly participation in palace politics.
• Modern scholars generally regard Princess Pingyang as having played a key role in the rise of the Wei consort clan, while viewing her own direct political activity as limited; her main importance lay in serving as a connecting point within a network of marriage and kinship.