Duan Ye

Biography

Elevation to Leadership

Duan Ye was initially a staff officer under Du Jin, a general serving Lü Guang, the Emperor Wuyi of Later Liang. He accompanied Du Jin on the western campaign against the Western Regions and was appointed Prefect of Jiankang (present-day Jiuquan City, Gansu Province) due to his military merit. In 396 (1st year of Longfei of Later Liang), Lü Guang proclaimed himself Heavenly King and promoted Duan Ye to Shangshu.

In 397 (2nd year of Longfei), the palace guard Juqu Mengxun and his cousin Juqu Nancheng, seeking revenge for a family feud, executed Ma Sui, the Central Field Military Commander of Later Liang, and Jing Xiang, the Magistrate of Linsong, and held a covenant oath. Within ten days, they gathered over ten thousand troops and stationed them at Jinshan (southwest of present-day Shandan, Gansu). In May of the same year, Juqu Nancheng advanced on Jiankang and sent an envoy to urge Duan Ye, pointing out that the Lü regime was declining, powerful ministers were usurping authority, punishments were excessive, and the people had no one to rely on. He suggested that Duan Ye take the lead in pacifying the province. Duan Ye initially ignored him, and the two sides remained in a stalemate for about twenty days, with no external reinforcements arriving. The local officials Gao Kui and Shi Hui of Jiankang Commandery urged Duan Ye to accept Juqu Nancheng's proposal. Duan Ye had long been in conflict with the Palace Attendant Fang Gui and the Vice Director Wang Xiang of Later Liang and was often anxious, so he agreed to Juqu Nancheng's request.

Juqu Nancheng and others jointly elevated Duan Ye to the titles of Envoy Holding the Tally, Grand Commander, Grand General of the Dragon's Crest, Governor of Liang Province, and Duke of Jiankang. He changed the era name to Shenxi and established the state name Northern Liang. Duan Ye appointed Juqu Nancheng as General of the State and handed over all military and political power to him. Upon hearing the news, Juqu Mengxun also led his troops to submit. Duan Ye appointed Juqu Mengxun as General Who Pacifies the West and Prefect of Zhangye.

Ignoring Advice

In May of 398 (2nd year of Shenxi), Duan Ye planned to send Juqu Mengxun to capture Western Commandery (present-day Yongchang County, Gansu Province), a key stronghold of Later Liang, but everyone was doubtful. Juqu Mengxun said: "This commandery controls a vital mountain pass and must be taken." Duan Ye approved. Juqu Mengxun diverted the river to flood the city, causing the walls to collapse, and captured Prefect Lü Chun before returning. Subsequently, Wang De, Prefect of Jinchang of Later Liang, and Meng Min, Prefect of Dunhuang, successively surrendered their commanderies to Duan Ye. Duan Ye enfeoffed Juqu Mengxun as Marquis of Linchi, appointed Wang De as Prefect of Jiuquan, and Meng Min as Inspector of Sha Province.

In June of the same year, Lü Hong of Later Liang abandoned Zhangye and withdrew east. Duan Ye moved the capital to Zhangye and wanted to pursue Lü Hong. Juqu Mengxun remonstrated: "An army with a strong will to return cannot be blocked, and a bandit at the end of his rope cannot be pursued; this is a warning for the military. It is best to let them go and plan for later." Duan Ye said: "Once we let the enemy go, it will be too late to regret." He led his army in pursuit but was heavily defeated by Lü Hong. Fortunately, Juqu Mengxun rescued him, saving his life. Duan Ye sighed: "I failed to use the words of Zhang Zifang, and thus I have come to this!"

Duan Ye built Xi'an City and appointed his general Zang Mohai as Prefect. Juqu Mengxun said: "Zang Mohai is brave but lacks strategy; he knows how to advance but not how to retreat. This is building a tomb for him, not a city!" Duan Ye still did not listen. Soon, Zang Mohai was defeated by Lü Zuan. Juqu Mengxun feared that Duan Ye could not tolerate him and often concealed his talents to avoid disaster.

Proclaiming Himself King of Liang

In February of 399 (1st year of Tianxi), Duan Ye proclaimed himself King of Liang, changed the era name to Tianxi, and appointed Juqu Mengxun as Left Vice Director of the Secretariat and Liang Zhongyong as Right Vice Director of the Secretariat.

In April of the same year, Lü Guang sent his son, Crown Prince Lü Shao, and Lü Zuan, Duke of Taiyuan, to attack Northern Liang. Duan Ye sought help from Tufa Wugu, the ruler of Southern Liang. Tufa Wugu sent his brother, Grand General of Agile Cavalry Tufa Lilugu, and Yang Gui to provide aid. Lü Shao saw that Duan Ye's army was strong and wanted to advance east along the Sanmen Ban mountain. Lü Zuan said: "Relying on the mountain to show weakness is inviting defeat; it is better to form a formation and charge directly; they will be afraid and dare not fight." Lü Shao then led his army south. Duan Ye wanted to engage in battle, but Juqu Mengxun stopped him, saying: "Yang Gui relies on the strength of the Xianbei and has the intention to take advantage of the situation. Lü Shao and Lü Zuan have advanced deep into our territory and are in a desperate position; our army cannot match them. If we do not fight now, we still have the safety of Mount Tai; if we fight, we face the danger of stacked eggs." Duan Ye listened to the advice and did not move. Lü Shao and Lü Zuan were unable to engage the Northern Liang army and had to withdraw.

In November of 400 (2nd year of Tianxi), Wang De, Prefect of Jiuquan, rebelled against Northern Liang and proclaimed himself Inspector of He Province. Duan Ye sent Juqu Mengxun to campaign against him. Wang De burned Jiuquan City and led his troops to Tang Yao. Juqu Mengxun caught up with him at Shatou, inflicted a heavy defeat, captured Wang De's wife and children along with his troops, and then returned.

Final Execution

In 401 (3rd year of Tianxi), Duan Ye feared Juqu Mengxun's bravery and strategy and intended to distance himself from him. He appointed Juqu Mengxun's uncle Juqu Yisheng as Prefect of Jiuquan and Juqu Mengxun as Prefect of Linchi. Ma Quan, a Junior Secretary under Duan Ye, was exceptionally intelligent and had extraordinary bearing and strategy. Duan Ye ordered Ma Quan to replace Juqu Mengxun as Prefect of Zhangye. Ma Quan was deeply trusted and often bullied Juqu Mengxun. Juqu Mengxun also feared and resented Ma Quan, so he slandered Ma Quan to Duan Ye, saying: "The world is not to be worried about; only Ma Quan is to be worried about." Duan Ye then executed Ma Quan.

Juqu Mengxun said to Juqu Nancheng: "Duan Ye is foolish and not a talent capable of saving the world; he believes in slander and loves flatterers, lacking the clarity of judgment. The only ones I feared were Suo Si and Ma Quan, and now they are both dead. I want to depose Duan Ye and support our brother as King. What do you think?" Juqu Nancheng said: "Duan Ye is a lone guest residing here; we established him as our ruler. With us two, he is like a fish in water. Since he values us, if we rebel against him, it will be inauspicious." So they stopped. Juqu Mengxun, being feared by Duan Ye, was uneasy and requested to be appointed Prefect of Xi'an. Duan Ye, also fearing that Juqu Mengxun had great ambitions and might cause trouble, agreed.

To find a pretext for rebellion, Juqu Mengxun agreed with Juqu Nancheng to jointly sacrifice at Lanmen Mountain and deliberately sent the Military Adjutant Xu Xian to report to Duan Ye: "Juqu Nancheng intends to rebel and has agreed to make trouble when he obtains a fake tally. If he requests to sacrifice at Lanmen Mountain, my words will be verified." On the appointed day, it was indeed so. Duan Ye arrested Juqu Nancheng and ordered him to commit suicide. Juqu Nancheng said: "Juqu Mengxun intends to rebel. I told you earlier, but because we are of the same clan, I did not speak. He fears that because I am still alive, the troops will not follow him, so he agreed to the mountain sacrifice and falsely accused me. If I die, Juqu Mengxun will surely rebel quickly. Please pretend that I am dead and publicly announce my crimes; Juqu Mengxun will surely cause chaos, and I will then punish him, and the matter will surely succeed." Duan Ye did not agree.

When Juqu Mengxun heard of Juqu Nancheng's death, he wept and said: "Juqu Nancheng was loyal to Duan Ye, yet he was wrongly killed. Can you all avenge him? Moreover, the province is in turmoil, which Duan Ye cannot control. I initially supported him, thinking he was like Chen Sheng or Wu Guang, but he believes in slander and is suspicious, killing the loyal and good. How can we sit by and watch the people suffer?" Juqu Nancheng had always been respected, and everyone was grieved and wept, following Juqu Mengxun. When they reached Di Chi, the army numbered over ten thousand. The General Who Guards the Army, Zang Mohai, led his troops to submit to Juqu Mengxun, and many Qiang and Hu tribes raised troops in response. Juqu Mengxun's army stationed at Houwu.

Duan Ye had previously suspected the Right General Tian Ang and had him imprisoned. By this time, Duan Ye apologized to Tian Ang and released him, ordering him to attack Juqu Mengxun along with the General of the Martial Guard Liang Zhongyong and others. Wang Fengsun said to Duan Ye: "The Tian clan of Xiping has had many rebels in past generations. Tian Ang is outwardly respectful but inwardly fierce; his ambitions are great and his heart treacherous; he cannot be trusted." Duan Ye said: "I have suspected him for a long time, but apart from Tian Ang, no one can punish Mengxun." Wang Fengsun's words were not adopted. When Tian Ang arrived at Houwu, he led five hundred cavalry to submit to Juqu Mengxun.

In May of 401 (3rd year of Tianxi), Juqu Mengxun's main army arrived at Zhangye (present-day Zhangye City, Gansu Province). Tian Ang's nephew, Tian Cheng'ai, opened the city gates to welcome Juqu Mengxun into the city, and Duan Ye's attendants and guards all scattered. Juqu Mengxun shouted loudly to ask where Duan Ye was, and the soldiers pointed in the direction. Duan Ye said to Juqu Mengxun: "I am a lone person, elevated by powerful families, and only then obtained the kingship. Please spare my life so that I may return to the eastern lands and see my wife and children." Juqu Mengxun did not agree and killed him.

Duan Ye was a Han Chinese of Jingzhao, in today's Xi'an. He served the Later Liang in his early career, as a subordinate of the general Du Jin under Lü Guang, and accompanied Du Jin on the western campaigns, being made governor of Jiankang, today's Jiuquan, for his services. In 396, when Lü Guang took the title of heavenly king, he appointed Duan Ye a minister. In the fifth month of the next year the Lushui Hu brothers Juqu Nancheng and his kin rose to avenge their family, killed the Later Liang army supervisor Ma Sui and the magistrate Jing Xiang of Linsong, swore their oath, gathered more than ten thousand men in ten days at the Jinshan hills and marched on Jiankang, sending an envoy to persuade Duan Ye to break with the Later Liang. The envoy argued that Lü's power had declined, that those in office did as they pleased, that punishments and killings had no rule, that rebellions followed one another within a single province, and that a man of his outstanding ability should not give his loyalty to a state on the point of ruin. Duan Ye refused at first, and the two sides stood off for some twenty days; when no relief came and the people of Jiankang, Gao Kui and Shi Hui among them, pressed him as well, and being on bad terms with the Later Liang ministers Fang Gui and Wang Xiang and living in constant fear, he consented, was raised up as ruler, changed the era name to Shenxi, and founded the Northern Liang, giving Juqu Nancheng the office of general of the state and the whole of military and civil government. When Juqu Mengxun heard of it he brought his people over as well, and was made general of the west and governor of Zhangye.

In war and diplomacy Duan Ye depended almost wholly on Juqu Mengxun's judgment, and made the wrong decision himself at every critical turn. In the eighth month of 397, when the Later Liang prince Lü Zuan withdrew his army, his generals feared pursuit; Lü Zuan said that Duan Ye had no great designs and could only hold out behind his walls, and openly sent word to him that he was returning to the capital and that Duan Ye might come out and fight if he dared — and Duan Ye indeed did not dare. In the fifth month of the following year Duan Ye sent Juqu Mengxun against the Later Liang stronghold of Xijun, which he took by damming a river to throw down the wall, capturing its governor Lü Chun; afterwards the governors of Jinchang, Wang De, and of Dunhuang, Meng Min, surrendered their commanderies, and Duan Ye made Mengxun marquis of Linchi, Wang De governor of Jiuquan and Meng Min governor of Shazhou. In the sixth month Lü Hong of the Later Liang abandoned Zhangye and withdrew east; Duan Ye moved his capital there and insisted on pursuing him, and Juqu Mengxun, warning that a homeward-bound army must not be blocked nor a cornered bandit chased, was overruled — Duan Ye was badly beaten by Lü Hong and barely escaped with Mengxun's help, afterwards admitting that he had brought it on himself by disregarding his advice. He then built the town of Xi'an and made Zang Mohai its governor, and when Mengxun observed that Zang Mohai was brave but had no strategy, knowing only how to advance and not how to retire, and that a fortress built for him was rather a tomb, Duan Ye again would not listen, and Zang Mohai was defeated before long.

In the second month of 399 Duan Ye styled himself king of Liang and changed the era name to Tianxi. In the fourth month Lü Guang sent his heir Lü Shao, the prince Lü Zuan and others against him, joined by Tufa Lilugu, the brother of Tufa Wugu. Duan Ye meant to fight, but Juqu Mengxun dissuaded him, arguing that Yang Gui, relying on his own strength, had designs of his own, while Lü Shao and Lü Zuan had come deep into hostile country with their army placed in a position of no return, so that battle must fail; staying still they were as safe as Mount Tai, fighting they would be as precarious as stacked eggs. Duan Ye held his hand, and the Lü commanders, unable to bring him to battle, took their army home. In the eleventh month of the next year the governor of Jiuquan, Wang De, rebelled and styled himself governor of Hezhou; Duan Ye sent Mengxun against him, Wang De burned Jiuquan and fled to Tang Yao, and Mengxun caught and routed him at Shatou, taking his wife, children and tribesmen before returning.

In 401 Duan Ye, grown wary of Juqu Mengxun's courage and counsel, set about distancing him, making Mengxun's elder kinsman Juqu Yisheng governor of Jiuquan and Mengxun governor of Linchi. His master of the gate, Ma Quan, was a man of unusual ability, and Duan Ye made him governor of Zhangye in Mengxun's place; much favored, Ma Quan often insulted Mengxun, who in turn resented him and slandered him to Duan Ye, saying that the empire was not worth worrying about and that the only thing to fear was Ma Quan, whereupon Duan Ye killed him. Mengxun then urged Juqu Nancheng to join him in revolt, calling Duan Ye stupid, no man to save a troubled age, credulous of slander and fond of flatterers, and saying that Suo Si and Ma Quan, the only men he feared, were now dead. Juqu Nancheng refused, on the ground that Duan Ye was a stranger whom they had raised up and who, having the two of them, was as a fish with water, so that rebellion would be inauspicious; Mengxun let the matter drop for the moment and asked instead to be governor of Xi'an, which Duan Ye, fearing some sudden turn from a man of his ambition, granted.

Juqu Mengxun then contrived to set Duan Ye and Juqu Nancheng at odds. He invited Nancheng to sacrifice with him at the Lanmen mountain and deliberately sent his marshal Xu Xian to warn Duan Ye that Nancheng meant to rebel and that his words would be proved true if Nancheng asked leave to sacrifice at that mountain. It fell out as he said, and Duan Ye had Nancheng arrested and ordered to take his own life. Nancheng protested that it was Mengxun who was rebelling, that he himself had known of it and kept silent only because they were of one clan, and that Mengxun, needing him out of the way because the tribes would not follow him while he lived, had fixed the day for the mountain sacrifice and now accused him; he proposed that Duan Ye give out that he was dead, publish his crimes, and let him attack Mengxun when he rose — the thing would surely succeed. Duan Ye refused. When Mengxun learned that Nancheng was dead, he wept before his people and asked whether they would avenge a man loyal to Duan Ye and unjustly killed, adding that the province was torn by war and seemed more than Duan Ye could manage, that he had raised him up thinking him a man of worth, and that he had listened to slander and grown full of suspicion and killed the loyal and good. Juqu Nancheng had always been kind to men, and they wept with him and followed; by the time they reached Dichi his army was over ten thousand, the garrison commander Zang Mohai came over with his troops, and most of the Qiang and Hu rose in response. Mengxun camped at Houwu. Duan Ye, who had long suspected the general of the right Tian Ang and had him imprisoned, now apologized, released him and sent him with the guard general Liang Zhongyong against Mengxun; Wang Fengsun warned that the Tian clan of Xiping had produced rebels in every generation, that Tian Ang was humble in appearance and vicious within, ambitious and ill-intentioned, and not to be trusted, but Duan Ye answered that he had doubted him long and had no one else to send. Tian Ang reached Houwu and went over to Mengxun with five hundred cavalry. In the fifth month of 401 Mengxun's army reached Zhangye; Tian Ang's nephew Tian Chengai cut open the gate for him, Duan Ye's attendants and guards scattered, and when Mengxun called out asking where Duan Ye was, the soldiers pointed him out. Duan Ye begged that his life be spared so that he might return east and see his wife and children; Mengxun refused and killed him.

The histories judge Duan Ye with one voice: he was rigid and pedantic, a follower of Confucian learning who trusted in divination and shamanic arts and had no craft or strategy, "stupid and benighted, no talent for saving a troubled age, credulous of slander, fond of flatterers and without the insight to judge", as the Zizhi Tongjian puts it, and again "a plain and honest elder, with no statecraft; his authority did not run, his subordinates did as they pleased". Having handed the whole of military and civil power to Juqu Nancheng, he could neither have his orders respected nor his name feared, and his officers acted for themselves — which is precisely why he failed. With him the Northern Liang passed into the hands of Juqu Mengxun, marking the rise of the Lushui Hu Juqu clan in the Hexi region.

The internal structure of power in the Northern Liang is clearly visible in the relations between Duan Ye and the Juqu brothers. Duan Ye was nominally master of Liangzhou, but military and civil government in practice came from Juqu Nancheng, while Juqu Mengxun held troops as general of the west and governor of Zhangye, time and again saving Duan Ye by his counsel and time and again being checked when it was ignored. One was a Confucian scholar of plain and honest temper, the other a Lushui Hu chieftain's son, a practical soldier of resource; such a pairing could not last: Duan Ye could neither master him nor do away with him, and could only distance him by killing Ma Quan or moving him to Linchi, until Mengxun in turn destroyed Nancheng by a stratagem, roused the tribes and replaced him. Under Juqu Mengxun the Northern Liang grew strong, holding the Hexi region for a time and contending with the Western and Southern Liang; looking back to its founding, Duan Ye, the first ruler raised up by others, was above all a transitional figure.

Major Activities

Establishment of the Northern Liang Regime

In 397, with the support of Juqu Nancheng and Juqu Mengxun, Duan Ye broke away from Later Liang and established the Northern Liang regime. He changed the era name to Shenxi, appointed Juqu Nancheng as General of the State to hold the military and political power of the state, and appointed Juqu Mengxun as General Who Pacifies the West and Prefect of Zhangye. This move laid the initial foundation for the Northern Liang regime but also planted the seeds for future suspicion between the ruler and his ministers.

Territorial Expansion

In 398, Duan Ye sent Juqu Mengxun to capture Western Commandery, taking Prefect Lü Chun prisoner. Subsequently, Wang De, Prefect of Jinchang, and Meng Min, Prefect of Dunhuang, successively surrendered. Duan Ye enfeoffed Juqu Mengxun as Marquis of Linchi, appointed Wang De as Prefect of Jiuquan, and Meng Min as Inspector of Sha Province. This series of military actions expanded the territory of Northern Liang and consolidated its position in the Hexi Corridor.

Avoiding Battle to Preserve the Territory

In 399, Lü Shao, Crown Prince of Later Liang, and Lü Zuan, Duke of Taiyuan, led an army to attack Northern Liang. Duan Ye sought help from Southern Liang and prepared to engage in battle. Juqu Mengxun analyzed the situation, believing that the enemy was in a desperate position and that the Southern Liang reinforcements under Yang Gui had ulterior motives, and advised not to move. Duan Ye adopted the advice and ultimately forced the Later Liang army to retreat, preserving the Northern Liang regime.

Personal Relations

• Juqu Nancheng**: Duan Ye's main supporter, General of the State. Duan Ye handed over the military and political power of the state to him. In 401, he was framed by Juqu Mengxun for rebellion, and Duan Ye ordered him to commit suicide.
• Juqu Mengxun**: One of Duan Ye's main supporters, General Who Pacifies the West and Prefect of Zhangye. Duan Ye feared his bravery and strategy and distanced him multiple times. In 401, he rebelled, captured Zhangye, killed Duan Ye, and succeeded as the monarch of Northern Liang.
• Ma Quan**: Junior Secretary under Duan Ye and Prefect of Zhangye. He was closely trusted by Duan Ye and often bullied Juqu Mengxun. In 401, he was executed by Duan Ye.
• Lü Guang**: Founding monarch of Later Liang. Duan Ye was initially a staff officer under his general Du Jin and later served as Shangshu of Later Liang.
• Lü Shao, Lü Zuan**: Sons of Lü Guang, the monarch of Later Liang. In 399, they led an army to attack Northern Liang but were blocked by Duan Ye's strategy of avoiding battle.
• Wang De**: Formerly Prefect of Jinchang of Later Liang, later surrendered to Northern Liang and served as Prefect of Jiuquan. In 400, he betrayed Northern Liang and was defeated by Juqu Mengxun.
• Meng Min**: Formerly Prefect of Dunhuang of Later Liang, later surrendered to Northern Liang and served as Inspector of Sha Province.
• Tian Ang**: Right General of Northern Liang. Duan Ye once suspected him and imprisoned him, but later released him and sent him to attack Juqu Mengxun; however, Tian Ang defected to Mengxun on the battlefield.

Historical Assessment

• Juqu Mengxun: "Duan Ye is foolish and dark, not a talent capable of saving the world in turmoil; he believes in slander and loves flatterers, lacking the clarity of judgment."
• Lü Zuan: "Ye has no heroic talent."
• Song Yao: "King Duan has no far-reaching strategy and will ultimately fail."
• Sima Guang, Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance: "Ye was a Confucian elder of good character, with no other stratagems. His authority and prohibitions were not enforced, and his subordinates acted on their own authority. He especially believed in divination and shamanism, and thus came to ruin."