Tufa Wugu

Biography

Family Background and Early Years

Tufa Wugu was born into the Tufa branch of the Hexi Xianbei, whose origins were said to share a lineage with the Tuoba clan of Northern Wei. His eighth-generation ancestor Tufa Pigu led his followers from north of the frontier into the Hexi region. Their territory extended east to Maitian and Qiantun, west to Shiluo, south to Jiahe, and north to the great desert. After Pigu's death, his son Tufa Shoutian succeeded him. According to the account preserved in the source, Shoutian's mother, Lady Huye, gave birth while lying under bedding, and because the Xianbei word for bedding was said to be “tufa,” the group adopted Tufa as its surname. Shoutian was followed by his grandson Tufa Shujineng. Shujineng was strong, decisive, and resourceful. During the Taishi era of the Western Jin, from 265 to 274, he killed Qinzhou Inspector Hu Lie at Wanhudui, defeated Liangzhou Inspector Su Yu at Jinshan, and occupied the territory of Liangzhou, causing Emperor Wu of Jin, Sima Yan, such concern that he was said to neglect his meals. Shujineng was later defeated by Ma Long and was killed by his own followers, who surrendered. He was succeeded by his cousin Tufa Wuwan; after Wuwan's death, Wuwan's grandson Tufa Tuijin succeeded; Tuijin was in turn succeeded by his son Tufa Sifujian. During Sifujian's leadership, the manpower and military strength of the Tufa tribe steadily increased. Tufa Wugu was Sifujian's son.

Wugu himself was described as “brave and possessing great ambitions.” After succeeding as tribal leader, he consulted the general Fentuo about seizing Liangzhou. Fentuo advised: “If you truly wish to obtain Liangzhou, you should first attend to agriculture and military training, honor men of talent, and put government and punishments in order. Only then can it be done.” Wugu accepted this advice, promoted agriculture and sericulture, cultivated good relations with neighboring groups, treated worthy men with respect, and accumulated strength.

Accepting Later Liang Titles and Building Strength

In 394, the sixth year of the Linjia era of Later Liang, Emperor Yiwu of Later Liang, Lü Guang, sent an envoy to appoint Tufa Wugu Acting with Imperial Authority, Champion General, and Grand Commander of the Hexi Xianbei, and enfeoffed him as Marquis of Guangwu County. Wugu asked his generals whether he should accept. Most argued that their manpower was already substantial and there was no reason to submit to another. Wugu initially intended to refuse, but his general Shi Zhenruoliu advised: “Our foundations are not yet secure; reason requires us to adapt to the times. Lü Guang's government and punishments are orderly and his territory has no internal danger. If he should devote himself to destroying us, the great and the small are unequal, and regret afterward would be useless. It would be better to accept, nourish our strength, and wait for an opportunity.” Wugu followed this advice and accepted the Later Liang appointments.

In the seventh month of 395, the seventh year of Linjia, Wugu decisively defeated the Yifu and Zhejue tribes and ordered the general Shi Yigan to build Lianchuan Fort, northwest of present-day Minhe County in Qinghai, as a base. Wugu climbed the great mountain at Lianchuan and wept in silence. When Shi Yigan asked why, Wugu replied that he knew Lü Guang was old and declining, but that his own ancestors had won distant peoples through virtue and caused foreign groups to respect their power; now, after he had inherited the leadership, neighboring tribes had rebelled, and if those near at hand were alienated, how could distant peoples submit? His general Fu Hun urged him to review the troops, swear an oath, and punish the rebellious tribes. Wugu did so, defeated them, then campaigned against the Yiyun Xianbei and defeated them as well. Lü Guang therefore enfeoffed Wugu as Duke of Guangwu Commandery. In the same year, Zhao Zhen of Guangwu, a young man fond of unusual strategy, abandoned his household and came to serve Wugu. Wugu exclaimed, “With Master Zhao, my great undertaking can succeed!” and appointed him Left Sima.

Refusing a Royal Title and Establishing His Own Regime

In the seventh month of 396, the first year of Longfei of Later Liang, Lü Guang assumed the title Heavenly King and again sent an envoy to appoint Wugu General Who Conquers the South, Inspector of Yizhou, and Wise King of the Left. Wugu told the envoy directly that Lü Guang had obtained Liangzhou through military power but had failed to pacify distant peoples through virtue or bring peace and benefit to the common people. Lü Guang's sons, he said, were greedy and dissolute, his three nephews were violent, the commanderies and counties were collapsing, and the people had no livelihood. He asked how he could go against the will of the realm and accept an unjust title, adding that the rise of emperors and kings followed no fixed pattern: the wayless perish, the virtuous prosper, and he intended to follow the hopes of Heaven and the people and become a ruler of the realm. He retained the ceremonial musicians and insignia sent by Lü Guang, declined the commission, and dismissed the envoy.

In the first month of 397, the second year of Longfei, Wugu openly rebelled against Later Liang. He styled himself Grand Commander, General-in-Chief, Great Chanyu, and Prince of Xiping, proclaimed an amnesty within his territory, adopted the era name Taichu, and founded the Southern Liang regime. He then displayed his forces at Guangwu and captured Jincheng. Lü Guang sent the general Dou Gou against him, but Wugu decisively defeated Dou Gou at Jieting. The Later Liang commanderies of Ledu, Huanghe, and Jiahe, in the area from modern Qinghai toward Tongren, all submitted. Tens of thousands of Qiang and Hu households south of the mountains attached themselves to Wugu, and the Later Liang officers Yang Gui and Wang Qiji also came over with several thousand households.

Royal Title, Transfer of the Capital, and Final Years

In the tenth month of 398, the second year of Taichu, Li Luan, General Who Establishes Might of Later Liang, surrendered Xingcheng to Wugu. In the twelfth month, Wugu changed his title to Prince of Wuwei. In the first month of 399, the third year of Taichu, he moved the capital from Xiping, present-day Xining in Qinghai, to Ledu, also in present-day Qinghai, and bestowed ranks broadly upon members of the ruling family and officials. He appointed his younger brother Tufa Lilugu General of Agile Cavalry and Duke of Xiping, stationing him at Anyi; his younger brother Tufa Nutan became General of Chariots and Cavalry and Duke of Guangwu and was stationed at Xiping. Wugu also recruited widely from among men of talent. Yang Gui became a guest adviser; Jin Shisheng and Shi Lianzhen were treated as distinguished leaders of the surrounding peoples; Yin Xun and Guo Xing as respected men of the western regions; Yang Tong, Yang Zhen, Wei Yin, Qu Chengming, Guo Huang, Guo Fen, Shi Gao, and Lu Song as outstanding civil and military talents; Liang Chang, Han Pi, Zhang Chang, and Guo Shao as capable men of the central regions; and Jin Shu, Xue Qiao, Zhao Zhen, Wang Zhong, Zhao Chao, and Su Ba as members of established families from Qin and Yong. They held prominent posts at court or governed commanderies and counties outside the capital. Appointments were said to be matched to ability, and each man was placed appropriately.

After moving the capital, Wugu discussed strategic priorities with his officials. He observed that the few commanderies of Longyou had fragmented into more than ten regimes amid disorder: Qifu Gangui held power south of the Yellow River, Duan Ye maintained armed control of Zhangye, and Later Liang occupied Guzang only by lingering precariously. He asked which of the three should be attacked first. Yang Tong argued that Qifu Gangui was fundamentally a tribal leader and would eventually submit, while Duan Ye was merely a scholar and not a serious concern. Lü Guang of Later Liang, however, was old, his heir was young, and his two sons distrusted one another; Guzang should therefore be taken first. By annexing the weak and attacking the benighted, he said, Guzang could be secured within two years, after which the other two rivals would submit without battle. Wugu strongly approved and secretly formed the ambition to annex their territories.

In the fifth month of 399, the Crown Prince of Later Liang, Lü Shao, and the Duke of Taiyuan, Lü Zuan, attacked Northern Liang. Duan Ye, ruler of Northern Liang, requested aid from Wugu. Wugu sent General of Agile Cavalry Lilugu and Yang Gui to assist him. Lü Zuan, fearing their advance, burned the grain at Dichi and Zhangye Valley and withdrew. In the sixth month, Wugu appointed Lilugu Inspector of Liangzhou and stationed him at Xiping, while summoning General of Chariots and Cavalry Nutan to court to manage the affairs of the government.

In the eighth month of the same year, Wugu, while intoxicated, rode at speed, fell from his horse, and injured his ribs. He joked, “This nearly gives Lü Guang and his sons reason for great joy.” His condition soon worsened. He told his officials, “The realm is still unsettled; you should establish an elder ruler.” He died after saying this. He had reigned for three years. He was given the posthumous title Prince Wu and the temple name Liezu. His younger brother Tufa Lilugu succeeded him.

Major Activities

Founding Southern Liang

Tufa Wugu founded the Southern Liang regime. In the first month of 397, he openly rebelled against Later Liang, proclaimed himself Grand Commander, General-in-Chief, Great Chanyu, and Prince of Xiping, and adopted the era name Taichu, marking the establishment of Southern Liang. He subsequently captured Jincheng, defeated a Later Liang army at Jieting, received the submission of the commanderies of Ledu, Huanghe, and Jiahe, and gained the allegiance of tens of thousands of Qiang and Hu households south of the mountains, thereby laying the territorial foundations of the new state. In 398 he changed his title to Prince of Wuwei, and in 399 he moved the capital to Ledu, establishing the political center of the regime.

Military Campaigns

During his rule, Wugu conducted repeated campaigns. In 395 he defeated the Yifu and Zhejue tribes and later defeated the Yiyun Xianbei. After establishing his regime, he captured Jincheng and defeated the Later Liang general Dou Gou at Jieting. In 399 he sent Lilugu to aid Northern Liang, forcing Lü Zuan of Later Liang to burn grain at Dichi and Zhangye Valley before retreating. He also decisively defeated the Qiang leader Liang Ji, captured Longzhi Fort, killed or captured tens of thousands, and appointed Tian Xuanming as Interior Administrator of Xiping.

Government and Administration

After succeeding to leadership, Wugu followed Fentuo's advice to “attend to farming and sericulture and cultivate good relations with neighbors,” developing the economy and accumulating strength. After founding his regime he recruited talent broadly and used both non-Han and Han personnel without regard to origin. Yang Gui served as guest adviser; Jin Shisheng and Shi Lianzhen and other leaders from surrounding peoples, Yin Xun and Guo Xing and other respected men of the west, Yang Tong and Yang Zhen and other civil and military talents, Liang Chang and Han Pi and other capable men from the central regions, and Jin Shu and Xue Qiao and other members of established Qin-Yong families all received important offices at court or governed commanderies and counties. The historical account says that “offices were assigned according to talent, and all were properly placed.” He also adopted Yang Tong's strategy of first destroying Later Liang and then seeking control of the Hexi region.

Diplomatic Strategy

Wugu was skilled at adapting to circumstances. Early in his leadership, when his base was not yet secure, he accepted Later Liang offices in order to build strength. Once his power had grown, he refused the royal title offered by Lü Guang, retained the ceremonial musicians and insignia, and dismissed the envoy. After establishing his own regime, he cultivated friendly relations with Northern Liang and sent troops to assist Duan Ye when Later Liang attacked, creating a shared front against Later Liang.

His political arrangements after taking the royal title are also recorded: in the first month of 399 he moved the capital to Ledu and enfeoffed his clan and ministers on a large scale; in the fifth month he sent his brother Lilugu to relieve the Northern Liang and forced Lü Zuan of the Later Liang to withdraw; in the sixth month he made Lilugu governor of Liangzhou with headquarters at Xiping; in the eighth month of the same year he fell from his horse while drunk, injured his ribs and died. Southern Liang was maintained after him by Lilugu and later by Nutan, so the survival of the polity did not depend on him alone.

Personal Relations

• Eighth-generation ancestor: Tufa Pigu
• Great-grandfather: Tufa Shujineng
• Grandfather: Tufa Tuijin
• Father: Tufa Sifujian
• Younger brothers: Tufa Lilugu, later the second ruler of Southern Liang; Tufa Nutan, later the third ruler of Southern Liang
• Sons: Tufa Qiangnu, Tufa Fanni, Tufa Fudan
• Grandson: Tufa Chengbo
• Shi Zhenruoliu: advised accepting Later Liang offices while building strength
• Shi Yigan: built Lianchuan Fort and consoled Wugu
• Fu Hun: urged Wugu to review the army and campaign against rebellious tribes
• Fentuo: advised strengthening agriculture and the military, honoring worthy men, and improving government
• Zhao Zhen: abandoned his household to join Wugu and was appointed Left Sima
• Yang Tong: proposed a strategy of destroying Later Liang first
• Yang Gui: former Later Liang officer who entered Wugu's service as a guest adviser
• Lü Guang: ruler of Later Liang; Wugu first accepted his titles and later rebelled against him
• Dou Gou: Later Liang general defeated by Wugu at Jieting
• Liang Ji: Qiang leader decisively defeated by Wugu

Historical Assessment

Contemporary and Early Historical Assessments

• The biographical annals in the Book of Jin state that “Wugu accepted Fu Hun's plan and trained his troops to punish those who would not submit,” praising his willingness to accept advice and use military force effectively.
• The Book of Jin summarized the Tufa brothers by saying that they “held sway among the various peoples, opened territory beyond the Yellow River, and cleared the western lands,” praising their expansion in Hexi.
• Sima Guang's Zizhi Tongjian describes Wugu as “brave and possessing great ambitions.”

Northern and Southern Dynasties through the Tang

• Wei Shou's Book of Wei, volume 99, included the Tufa clan among its biographies and described the rise and fall of their regime in detail, treating Southern Liang as an important polity of the Sixteen Kingdoms period.
• When Fang Xuanling and others compiled the Book of Jin, they included Tufa Wugu among the “Recorded Accounts,” placing him alongside other rulers of the Sixteen Kingdoms and acknowledging his status as a founder who established a state title.
• Tang historians often focused on his death after falling from a horse while intoxicated, regarding the sudden end of his ambitions as regrettable.

Song and Yuan Periods

• Sima Guang's Zizhi Tongjian records Wugu's activities in detail and gives particular attention to his declaration, when rejecting Lü Guang's royal title, that “the rise of emperors and kings has no fixed pattern,” treating it as a representative expression of the age of competing rulers.
• Hu Sanxing, in his commentary on the Zizhi Tongjian, examined Wugu's move of the capital to Ledu and his distribution of commands among his younger brothers and regarded his institutional arrangements as relatively orderly.

Modern and Contemporary Assessments

• Modern historians generally regard Tufa Wugu as the founder of the Southern Liang regime and argue that his establishment of political power among the Hexi Xianbei opened a path for the development of Xianbei power in the Hexi region.
• Some scholars note that although he reigned only three years, his policies of promoting agriculture, cultivating good relations with neighboring groups, and employing both Hu and Han personnel laid foundations for the continuation of Southern Liang.
• Scholarship generally holds that Wugu's death was unusually sudden. His unfinished ambitions were inherited by his younger brothers Lilugu and Nutan, but Southern Liang ultimately failed to unify the Hexi region.