Duan Jiong

Biography

Family Background and Early Years

Duan Jiong's ancestry was traced to Prince Duan of the state of Zheng. He was a collateral great-grandson of Duan Huizong, Protector-General of the Western Regions, and belonged to the Wuwei Duan clan, one of the martial great families of Liangzhou. As a young man he practiced riding and archery, admired roaming heroes, and cared little for material wealth. In adulthood he changed his habits and became interested in ancient learning. He was first recommended as Filially Pious and Incorrupt and served at Xianling and as magistrate of Yangling, where he displayed administrative ability.

Entry into Military Service

Duan was later transferred to become commandant of the Liaodong dependency. When Xianbei raided the frontier, he feared that they would flee if alarmed, so he sent a courier carrying a false sealed order instructing him to withdraw. He staged a retreat while secretly laying an ambush. The Xianbei pursued and were decisively defeated. Because he had forged an imperial order, Duan faced serious punishment; his military merit led to a reduced penalty involving frontier service. After completing it, he was called back as Consultant.

At the time, Dongguo Dou and Gongsun Ju had gathered some thirty thousand men in Taishan and Langye, attacking commanderies and counties. Government forces had failed to suppress them for years. In 156 Emperor Huan ordered the high ministers to recommend a commander with both civil and military ability. Excellency Yin Song recommended Duan Jiong, who was appointed General of the Household. Duan destroyed the rebel forces, killed their leaders, took more than ten thousand heads, and forced the survivors either to flee or surrender. The court granted him a noble title, five hundred thousand cash, and an office for one of his sons.

Pacifying the Western Qiang

In 159 Duan became Protector of the Qiang. Eight Qiang groups, including the Shaodang, Shaohe, Dangjian, and Lejie, were attacking the Longxi and Jincheng frontiers. Duan led government troops together with twelve thousand cavalry from allied Qiang communities of Huangzhong out through Huanggu and defeated them. He pursued survivors south across the Yellow River and ordered Tian Yan and Xia Yu to recruit volunteers for a difficult assault using ropes; at Luoting his forces won again, killing about two thousand and capturing more than ten thousand.

In spring 160 remaining Qiang forces, joined by a Shaohe commander, attacked Zhangye and captured Julu fort. More than a thousand settlements concentrated against Duan's army and attacked at dawn. Duan dismounted and fought until noon, when weapons and arrows were exhausted on both sides. He pursued them continuously, fighting by day and night, cutting meat and swallowing snow. After more than forty days he reached Jishi Mountain near the Yellow River's headwaters, over two thousand li beyond the frontier, killed the Shaohe commander, and killed or captured more than five thousand. Further operations against Shicheng and Baishi Qiang groups produced additional casualties and surrenders. In winter, when Lejie and Lingwu groups surrounded Yunjie and attacked officials and civilians, Duan moved camp to relieve them and took several hundred enemies.

In winter 161 Qiang groups from Shangjun and Longxi invaded Bingzhou and Liangzhou. Duan led allied Huangzhong Qiang against them. Liangzhou Inspector Guo Hong wanted to share military credit and allegedly delayed Duan's advance. The allied Qiang, exhausted by long service and longing for home, rebelled. Guo blamed Duan, who was imprisoned and sentenced to labor. Qiang attacks then intensified. Thousands of officials and commoners petitioned at the capital on Duan's behalf, and the court recognized that Guo had wronged him. When Emperor Huan asked Duan about the matter, he merely accepted blame rather than accusing Guo, and people in the capital praised his character. He was pardoned, again appointed Consultant, and promoted to Inspector of Bingzhou.

By 163 Qiang power had become so strong that Liangzhou was nearly lost. Duan was again appointed Protector of the Qiang and hurried to his post. In spring 164, 355 Qiang leaders including Fenglou, Liangduo, and Dianna brought three thousand settlements to surrender. That winter Duan defeated regrouped Dangjian and Lejie forces, killing their commanders and killing or capturing more than four thousand.

In spring 165 Duan attacked the Lejie again, taking more than four hundred heads and receiving more than two thousand surrenders. In summer he attacked the Dangjian in Huangzhong but was defeated and surrounded for three days. Following the plan of the recluse Fan Zhizhang, he slipped troops out at night, returned to battle with drums sounding, and broke the Qiang forces. He pursued them relentlessly through mountain valleys from spring to autumn, fighting almost every day. The source records twenty-three thousand enemies killed, tens of thousands captured, eight million livestock seized, and more than ten thousand settlements surrendered. He was made Marquis of Duxiang with five hundred households.

In 167 the Dangjian and related groups rebelled again and gathered more than four thousand men to attack Wuwei. Duan pursued them to Luanniao, destroyed their force, killed their commander, and took more than three thousand heads. The source states that the western Qiang were thereafter pacified.

Pacifying the Eastern Qiang

After the Eastern Xianling Qiang and related groups had badly defeated General Who Pacifies the West Ma Xian, the court had been unable to suppress them effectively and they repeatedly raided the Three Capital Regions. Later, General Who Crosses the Liao Huangfu Gui and General of the Gentlemen of the Household Zhang Huan repeatedly accepted their surrenders, but the groups rebelled again. Emperor Huan therefore asked Duan Jiong to propose a strategy.

Duan replied that about twenty thousand Qiang settlements had already surrendered to Huangfu Gui, making it possible to distinguish those who had submitted from the remaining hostile groups. He criticized the delay in advancing and argued that the enemy's continued concentration from winter into spring had exhausted men and horses. At the same time, he rejected reliance on clemency alone, warning that the remaining groups would submit only when desperate and rebel again once the army withdrew. He estimated that more than thirty thousand eastern Qiang settlements remained. Because they lay close to the frontier on comparatively open routes and had long harassed Bingzhou, Liangzhou, the Three Capital Regions, Xihe, Shangjun, Anding, and Beidi, while territory from Yunzhong and Wuyuan westward to Hanyang over more than two thousand li had been occupied by Xiongnu and Qiang groups, he compared the problem to a dangerous growth that would worsen if not removed.

Duan proposed using five thousand cavalry, ten thousand infantry, and three thousand carts and predicted that the enemy could be destroyed in two or three years without expenditure exceeding 5.4 billion cash. He contrasted this with earlier wars: the Qiang rebellions beginning in the Yongchu era had continued for fourteen years and cost 24 billion, while another seven years of warfare from the end of the Yonghe era had cost more than 8 billion without eliminating the threat. He therefore argued that limited short-term hardship was preferable to permanent insecurity and volunteered to carry out the campaign. Emperor Huan approved the memorial in full.

In spring 168 Duan led more than ten thousand troops with fifteen days' provisions from Pengyang toward Gaoping and fought the Xianling groups at Fengyi Mountain. His men were initially frightened by the enemy's numbers. Duan ordered bows strung, weapons sharpened, spears arranged three ranks deep, strong crossbows positioned, and light cavalry deployed on both wings. He told the soldiers that they were thousands of li from home: advance meant success, flight meant death. The army attacked with renewed resolve. Duan personally rode beside the formation, launched a sudden assault, and routed the Qiang, taking more than eight thousand heads and 280,000 cattle, horses, and sheep.

Empress Dowager Dou, then governing as regent, issued an edict praising him for marching through frost and snow, moving day and night, exposing himself to missiles, and inspiring his troops. She noted that within ten days the enemy had collapsed and that the army had avenged a century of reverses. Duan received two hundred thousand cash, one member of his family was appointed Gentleman of the Interior, and extra funds and goods were released for military expenses. He was appointed General Who Breaks the Qiang.

That summer Duan pursued Qiang forces through Qiaomen to Zouma Water, then hurried more than two hundred li in a day and night to Sheyan Marsh and defeated them again. Survivors regrouped at Luochuan. Duan sent Cavalry Major Tian Yan with five thousand men to the east and Acting Major Xia Yu with two thousand around the west. Six or seven thousand Qiang attacked Tian's force but were defeated and fled. Duan pressed forward and joined Tian Yan in pursuing them to Lingxian Water. His troops suffered hunger and thirst, but he forced the enemy from the water source and kept up the pursuit while fighting through Lingwu Valley. Duan put on armor and led the advance personally; the Qiang collapsed, abandoned their weapons, and fled. After three days and nights of pursuit, the soldiers' feet were badly blistered. By Jingyang, about four thousand remaining settlements had dispersed into the valleys of the Hanyang mountains.

In 169 the source states that Duan destroyed the remaining eastern Qiang resistance, completing the pacification of both east and west. Across 180 battles he was credited with more than sixty thousand enemy heads and over 420,000 animals captured. He was made Marquis of Xinfeng County with ten thousand households.

Later Career and Death

In 170 Duan was summoned to court and served as Palace Attendant, Bearer of the Gilded Mace, Intendant of Henan, and Colonel Director of Retainers. He aligned himself with court eunuchs and participated in arresting and killing Imperial University students, thereby preserving wealth and influence. Under Emperor Ling he reached the office of Defender-in-chief. In 179 he replaced Qiao Xuan as Defender-in-chief but held office for only about a month before impeaching himself after a solar eclipse; his seal was recalled and he was handed to the judicial authorities. When the eunuch Wang Fu was killed by Colonel Director Yang Qiu, Duan was implicated and imprisoned. He drank poison and died. His family was exiled to the frontier, but after the palace attendant Lü Qiang submitted a memorial, his wife and children were allowed to return to Guzang in Wuwei.

Major Activities

Military Contributions

Duan Jiong's principal achievement was the suppression of Qiang rebellions. From 159 he spent more than a decade on frontier campaigns and fought more than a hundred engagements. In the western campaigns he pursued enemies to Jishi Mountain, more than two thousand li beyond the frontier, endured extreme hardship, and fought continuously for more than forty days. In the eastern campaigns he rejected reliance on repeated accommodation and advocated decisive military destruction, a strategy summarized in the source by the image of spears and blades forcing submission. He eventually brought to an end rebellions that had troubled the Eastern Han frontier for generations.

Political Activity

After his major military successes, Duan Jiong was summoned to court and successively served as Palace Attendant, Bearer of the Gilded Mace, Intendant of Henan, and Colonel Director of Retainers. In court politics he aligned himself with the eunuch faction and took part in arrests and killings of Imperial University students, which helped him preserve wealth and rank. He twice reached the office of Defender-in-chief. This later political career stood in sharp contrast to his military reputation, and his association with the eunuchs ultimately brought disgrace and ruin.

Travels and Campaign Geography

Duan Jiong's military activity covered much of the northwestern frontier, including areas in present-day Gansu, Qinghai, Shaanxi, and Ningxia. He pursued Qiang forces more than two thousand li beyond the frontier as far as Jishi Mountain, identified by the source with the modern Amne Machin range in Qinghai. He defeated Xianling groups at Fengyi Mountain in present-day Ningxia and pursued the Eastern Qiang through Sheyan Marsh, northwest of present-day Jingbian County in Shaanxi, Luochuan, Lingxian Water in the area of present-day Zhangye in Gansu, and Lingwu Valley on the eastern side of the Helan Mountains around present-day Yinchuan and Qingtongxia in Ningxia, finally reaching Jingyang.

Relations with Contemporaries

Duan Jiong, Huangfu Gui, and Zhang Huan were collectively called the “Three Mings of Liangzhou,” all being men from Liangzhou whose courtesy names contained the character “ming.” Their policies differed: Huangfu Gui and Zhang Huan favored accommodation of Qiang groups, while Duan favored military destruction. Before the eastern campaign he criticized Zhang Huan for hesitating to advance. Duan also maintained close relations with the eunuch faction, especially Wang Fu, which contributed to his downfall.

Personal Relations

Family

• Duan Huizong: Collateral great-grandfather, Western Han Protector-General of the Western Regions.
• Duan Wei: Clan relative and late Eastern Han general.

Adviser

• Fan Zhizhang: Recluse whose plan helped Duan escape an encirclement.

Ruler and Subject

• Emperor Huan of Han: Emperor under whom Duan received noble rank for military achievements.
• Emperor Ling of Han: Emperor under whom Duan reached the office of Defender-in-chief.
• Empress Dowager Dou: Regent who praised Duan's eastern Qiang campaign.

Colleagues

• Huangfu Gui: One of the Three Mings of Liangzhou; favored accommodation of the Qiang.
• Zhang Huan: One of the Three Mings of Liangzhou; favored accommodation of the Qiang.
• Tian Yan: Military officer who campaigned with Duan.
• Xia Yu: Acting Major who campaigned with Duan.
• Guo Hong: Inspector of Liangzhou who allegedly framed Duan.
• Yin Song: Excellency who recommended Duan as General of the Household.

Conflicts

• Wang Fu: Powerful eunuch with whom Duan aligned; Duan was implicated after Wang's execution.
• Yang Qiu: Colonel Director of Retainers who killed Wang Fu, leading to Duan's implication.

Historical Assessment

Eastern Han and Contemporary Accounts

• Empress Dowager Dou issued an edict praising Duan for enduring frost and snow, marching day and night, exposing himself to missiles, inspiring his soldiers, and avenging long-standing defeats, as recorded in the Book of the Later Han.
• When Duan was imprisoned after Guo Hong's accusations, thousands of officials and commoners petitioned at the palace gate for him, and people in the capital called him a man of mature virtue.
• Emperor Huan accepted Duan's strategy for the Qiang campaigns and ordered that it be followed as submitted.

Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties

• Fan Ye's Book of the Later Han described Duan as skilled in riding and archery, initially fond of roaming-hero culture, and later devoted to ancient learning. It recorded his military ability in detail but also his later alliance with eunuchs.
• The Dongguan Hanji also preserved detailed accounts of his campaigns against the Qiang.

Tang and Song Periods

• Sima Guang's Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance recorded Duan's campaigns and recognized his military skill while noting the fault of aligning with eunuchs.

Modern Period

• Lü Simian discussed Duan's strategy in the context of Eastern Han Qiang warfare in his history of the Qin and Han.
• Modern scholars commonly regard Duan as one of the principal Eastern Han commanders in the Qiang wars, praising his military ability while criticizing his later alliance with court eunuchs.