Zhang Juzheng

Biography

Family Background and Early Life

Zhang Juzheng was born on 26 May 1525, the fifth day of the fifth lunar month in the fourth year of Jiajing, into the household of a lower-degree scholar in Jiangling County, Jingzhou Prefecture. The source text cites the 1547 metropolitan examination register as recording that he was registered with Jingzhou Guard in Huguang as a military household member, studied the Book of Rites, used the courtesy name Shuda, ranked second among his brothers, was twenty-three years old, and was born on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month. The same register named his great-grandfather Zhang Cheng, grandfather Zhang Zhen, father Zhang Wenming, mother Lady Zhao, elder brother Zhang Juren, younger brothers Zhang Jujing, Zhang Ju'an, Zhang Juyi, Zhang Jukuan, Zhang Juye, Zhang Juxue, and Zhang Juzhong, and wife Lady Gu.

The source text also notes a conflicting record in a biographical account that gives his birthday as the third day of the fifth lunar month, corresponding to 24 May 1525. It says that many modern works use that date and suggests that the discrepancy may derive from textual or printing error. The English version preserves this disagreement rather than resolving it.

A family anecdote says that before Zhang's birth, his great-grandfather dreamed that a round moon fell into a water jar and illuminated the surroundings, after which a white turtle slowly rose from the water. Interpreting the turtle as a sign of the unborn child, the great-grandfather gave him the childhood name “Baigui,” meaning “white jade tablet” or “white gui,” in the hope that he would bring honor to the family.

Zhang Juzheng was described as exceptionally intelligent from childhood and became known locally as a prodigy. In 1536, at age twelve, he took the local preliminary examination. Li Shiao, Prefect of Jingzhou, admired his quick intelligence, urged him to cultivate great ambitions and serve the state loyally, and changed the boy's name from Baigui to “Juzheng.” Zhang entered the prefectural school in the same year.

In 1537, at age thirteen, Zhang took the provincial examination but failed because Huguang Grand Coordinator Gu Lin deliberately held him back, believing that further tempering would help him develop. In 1540 he passed the provincial examination at age sixteen and became a young juren. Gu Lin admired him greatly, telling others that “this boy has the talent of a general or chancellor.” He removed his own rhinoceros-hide belt and gave it to Zhang, urging him to aspire to figures such as Yi Yin and Yan Hui rather than remain merely a precocious provincial graduate.

Entry into Office and Political Formation, 1547–1566

In 1547, the twenty-sixth year of Jiajing, Zhang Juzheng passed the metropolitan examination as ninth in the second class and was selected as a bachelor-in-waiting in the Hanlin Academy. Xu Jie, already an important grand secretary, was among his instructors. Xu Jie stressed learning useful to government and the state. Under his influence, Zhang studied court institutions, administrative precedents, and statecraft, forming foundations for his later political career.

At that time, the Grand Secretariat was the scene of intense political rivalry. Grand Secretaries Xia Yan and Yan Song struggled over the position of senior grand secretary. Xia Yan briefly prevailed but was later destroyed through Yan Song's accusations, allowing Yan Song to dominate the Grand Secretariat. By observing these struggles, the source text says, Zhang developed a direct understanding of political corruption and weaknesses in frontier defense.

In 1549, the twenty-eighth year of Jiajing, Zhang submitted the “Memorial on Current Government.” He described one general disorder of blocked vital energy and five further maladies compared to swelling, numbness, and paralysis, using these images to set out a systematic program of political reform. Neither the Jiajing Emperor nor Yan Song paid serious attention to the proposals. During the rest of the Jiajing reign, apart from routine documents, Zhang submitted no further major reform memorial.

In 1554 Zhang took sick leave and returned to Jiangling. During three years away from court, he traveled through his home region and visited local sites. The source text states that these travels exposed him to unequal taxation, land concentration, and rural hardship. In an inscription concerning Jingzhou Prefecture he wrote that “land taxes are unequal, poor people lose their livelihoods, and the people suffer from annexation.” This experience, according to the source, strengthened his sense of political responsibility and helped draw him back into government.

In 1557 Zhang returned to the Hanlin Academy. The source text portrays him as politically more mature after years of frustration. He followed a method associated with his teacher Xu Jie: inwardly preserving ambitions distinct from others while outwardly avoiding conspicuous confrontation, waiting for favorable circumstances.

In 1564, the forty-third year of Jiajing, Zhang became Right Moral Instructor in the Right Spring Quarter and concurrently Instructor in the Directorate of Education. Xu Jie recommended him to lecture and read for the future Longqing Emperor, Zhu Zaiji, then Prince of Yu. Service in the princely household also connected Zhang with men who might later enter government, expanding the network that would support his future administration.

In the twelfth lunar month of 1566, the Jiajing Emperor died. Xu Jie drafted the testamentary edict and brought Zhang Juzheng into the work. Soon afterward Zhang was promoted to Right Vice Minister of Rites and concurrently Hanlin Academician.

Entry into the Grand Secretariat and the Longqing Reign, 1567–1572

In the first lunar month of 1567, the first year of Longqing, Zhang Juzheng entered the Grand Secretariat as a former official of the Prince of Yu's household, together with the prince's former lecturer Chen Yiqin. Zhang was appointed Left Vice Minister of Personnel and Grand Secretary of the Eastern Pavilion. In the fourth lunar month he became Minister of the Ministry of Rites and Grand Secretary of the Wuying Hall. He had now reached the center of Ming policy making.

The source text describes the Ming state at this time as suffering from displaced populations, an empty treasury, and military pressure on several fronts. Mongol forces had earlier penetrated the north during the Gengxu Incident; local chieftain conflicts had shaken the southwest; and coastal communities had suffered from wokou raiding. Political rivalry within the Grand Secretariat also remained intense.

After Yan Song's fall, Xu Jie became senior grand secretary. Xu and Zhang together worked on the Jiajing Emperor's testamentary edict, reversing some policies associated with ritual construction and large public works under the late emperor and restoring offices to ministers who had suffered in political cases. The source text says these measures were broadly welcomed.

In the seventh lunar month of 1568, Xu Jie retired because of age. In the following year, his former rival Gao Gong returned to the Grand Secretariat, took control of personnel administration, and became the dominant minister.

In 1570, the fourth year of Longqing, Altan Khan attacked the Datong frontier and, according to the source text, intended to proclaim himself emperor. Zhang learned that Altan Khan's grandson Baya Ači had defected with his wife Baya-beyiji and the husband of his wet nurse, together with a group of roughly ten people. Fang Fengshi, Grand Coordinator of Datong, and Wang Chonggu, Supreme Commander of Xuanfu and Datong, decided to accept the defection.

Zhang Juzheng gave strategic instructions and urged Wang Chonggu and Fang Fengshi to memorialize the throne in favor of accepting the defectors. Many at court objected and feared a trap. Altan Khan's cavalry then massed on the northern frontier. Wang Chonggu, acting on preparations associated with Zhang's advice, used Baya Ači's presence as leverage. Altan Khan ultimately compromised. Zhang supported returning Baya Ači with ceremony, while Altan Khan handed over Zhao Quan and other Chinese defectors. When Baya Ači returned wearing a red silk robe granted by the Ming emperor, Altan Khan was moved and declared that he would no longer raid Datong. He sought titles, tribute relations, and trade with the Ming.

In 1571, the fifth year of Longqing, the Longqing Emperor, persuaded by Zhang Juzheng and others, granted Altan Khan the title Prince of Loyalty and Obedience and opened horse markets at three frontier commands. The agreement stabilized the northern frontier and allowed Zhang to devote greater attention to domestic government.

Senior Grand Secretary and the Wanli Reforms, 1572–1582

In 1572, the sixth year of Longqing, the Longqing Emperor died and the ten-year-old Wanli Emperor succeeded him. Gao Gong's outspoken remarks offended Empress Dowager Li, the emperor's mother, while the eunuch Feng Bao, who also opposed Gao, denounced him to her. Gao Gong was ordered to return home for allegedly monopolizing authority. In the sixth lunar month Zhang Juzheng became senior grand secretary. In the eighth lunar month he was additionally granted Left Pillar of State and promoted to Grand Secretary of the Zhongji Hall. Zhang declined the honors four times but was not permitted to refuse.

That same month Zhang presented a six-part reform program addressing excessive debate, restoration of discipline, enforcement of imperial orders, verification of names and realities, strengthening of the state's foundations, and improvement of military preparedness. Its core was the rectification of official administration together with policies intended to enrich the state and strengthen the military. The source text quotes him criticizing abstract arguments over “kingly government” and “hegemonic government,” insisting that the distinction between righteousness and profit lay in intention rather than merely in outward form. He identified severe shortages in state finance as a central problem of government.

In the eleventh lunar month of 1573, the first year of Wanli, Zhang memorialized for implementation of the Kaocheng assessment system. Responsibilities were to be made explicit, with the six supervising offices checking the six ministries and the Grand Secretariat in turn checking the supervising offices. Matters assigned for action were tracked from the Grand Secretariat through the supervisory organs to the responsible offices. The source text contrasts this with the previous situation in which superiors issued repeated orders while subordinates treated them lightly. The Kaocheng assessment system was said to increase administrative efficiency, clarify responsibility, and make rewards and punishments more distinct, so that government commands were carried out quickly even at great distance.

In 1577, the fifth year of Wanli, Zhang's father Zhang Wenming died. Under ordinary official rules Zhang should have left office for three years of mourning. With the Wanli Emperor's support, however, Zhang remained in office under the exceptional practice of “seizing affection,” under which mourning duties were overridden by service to the throne. This provoked fierce criticism. Wu Zhongxing, Zhao Yongxian, Ai Mu, Shen Sixiao, and Zou Yuanbiao remonstrated and were punished with court beatings, exile, demotion, or other penalties. Zou Yuanbiao suffered a permanently injured leg. The opposition was ultimately suppressed, but the source text states that Zhang became deeply alienated from much of officialdom and acquired a reputation for clinging to power and failing in filial mourning. It also portrays his late governing style as becoming increasingly forceful.

In 1578, the sixth year of Wanli, Zhang began a land survey in Fujian as a pilot project. The source text says the local population found it beneficial. In 1580 he memorialized successfully for a nationwide cadastral survey and for redrawing fish-scale land registers. It gives the registered land total in 1580 as 7,013,976 qing, an increase of 2,336,026 qing over the figure for 1571. By bringing previously concealed lands of nobles and gentry back into the tax registers, the reforms increased land-tax revenue.

In 1581, the ninth year of Wanli, Zhang ordered nationwide implementation of the Single whip law. The source text treats it as a major reform in the history of Chinese taxation after the Tang Two-Tax System. It combined and simplified taxes and labor obligations and reduced the number of procedures for collection, while moving toward the later fusion of the poll tax with the field tax.

In 1579, the seventh year of Wanli, the Wanli Emperor asked the Ministry of Revenue for 100,000 taels of silver for imperial food expenses through the Court of Imperial Entertainments. Zhang argued in a memorial that state income and expenditure were already under strain and asked what resources would remain if flood, drought, or a sudden frontier emergency occurred. He urged the emperor to reduce “all useless expenditures.” The request for 100,000 taels was canceled, as were expenditures for lanterns during the Lantern Festival. Under Zhang's opposition, reconstruction of the Ciqing and Cining palaces and the Wuying Hall was also halted, transfers of money to the inner treasury for rewards were reduced, imperial clothing and furnishing expenditures were cut, and textile requisitions from Suzhou, Songjiang, and Yingtian were reduced. The source text even says that lessons for the Wanli Emperor were moved from night to daytime to save candles.

In 1580, Zhang's younger brother Zhang Jujing became seriously ill and returned home for treatment. Zhang Lu, Grand Coordinator of Baoding, exceptionally issued him an official travel authorization allowing use of the courier-station system. Zhang Juzheng immediately returned the document and wrote that anyone who intended to enforce the law for the court should begin by observing it himself.

Zhang Juzheng died on 9 July 1582, the twentieth day of the sixth lunar month in the tenth year of Wanli, at age fifty-eight by traditional reckoning. He was posthumously granted Supreme Pillar of State and the posthumous name Wenzhong. Ten days before his death, the Wanli Emperor granted him the title Grand Preceptor. The source text describes him as the only Ming minister to receive that title during his lifetime.

Posthumous Purge and Rehabilitation

Soon after Zhang Juzheng's death, in the twelfth lunar month of 1582, Investigating Censor Li Zhi submitted a memorial accusing Feng Bao of twelve major offenses. The Wanli Emperor reportedly responded, “I have waited a long time for this memorial.” Feng Bao's property was confiscated and he was sent to Nanjing to work at the imperial mausoleum. Liang Menglong, Zeng Shengwu, and Wang Zhuan were all forced into retirement.

In the first lunar month of 1583, Ruan Zixiao, Supervising Secretary in the Nanjing Office of Scrutiny for Justice, accused Zhang Juzheng's sons of improperly obtaining examination degrees and asked that they be stripped of them. Yang Keli accused Zhang of framing the Prince of Liao, Zhu Xianjie, while the prince's consort submitted a memorial asserting his innocence and claiming that the prince's property had passed into the Zhang household. The Wanli Emperor then ordered the Zhang family property confiscated.

The source text says that officials sealed the residence so quickly that some elderly people, women, and children were trapped inside, and seventeen people died of hunger, including three infants. Zhang's eldest son Zhang Jingxiu, unable to endure severe interrogation, wrote a statement in blood and hanged himself. His second and third sons, Zhang Sixiu and Zhang Maoxiu, were sent to unhealthy frontier regions.

Pan Jixun memorialized that the case against Zhang Juzheng was being pursued too harshly. The emperor was displeased, and Censor Li Zhi later impeached Pan for protecting Zhang, causing Pan to lose office and return to commoner status. Qi Jiguang, commander at Jizhou, was transferred to Guangdong and died not long afterward. Grand Secretary Xu Guo submitted three requests to retire, lamenting that whereas earlier “the reversal of right and wrong lay with petty men, today it lies with gentlemen,” and criticizing factional attacks and private interests.

Yu Shenxing, who had himself been excluded after opposing Zhang during the mourning controversy, wrote to the investigating official Qiu Shun that when Zhang held power, everyone at court competed to praise his achievements and dared not speak of his faults, but after his fall everyone competed to seek out his crimes and dared not speak of his achievements; neither, he said, reflected the full truth.

Under pressure from public discussion, the Wanli Emperor agreed to provide Zhang Juzheng's approximately eighty-year-old mother with an empty residence and ten qing of land for her support.

During the Tianqi era, under advocacy from Censor-in-Chief Zou Yuanbiao and others, Zhang's reputation was gradually restored. The source text notes the irony that Zou had suffered a court beating and permanent injury for opposing Zhang in 1577. In 1622, the second year of Tianqi, an edict restored Zhang's former official status.

During the Chongzhen era, the Chongzhen Emperor fully rehabilitated him. The source text quotes the emperor as lamenting that after reflecting on “Jiangling,” one could see that a hundred mediocre chief ministers were not worth one minister capable of saving the age. Later commentators summarized Zhang's career with the phrase, “His merit lay with the state; his faults with his own household.” An inscription at Zhang's former residence was quoted: “Only when favor and resentment are exhausted can judgment be settled; only when the frontiers are endangered is talent truly seen.”

Zhang Juzheng was born on the fifth day of the fifth month of the fourth year of Jiajing (26 May 1525) into a household of the Jingzhou guard, his father Zhang Wenming being a licentiate. It was said that before his birth his great-grandfather dreamed of a full moon falling into a water jar and lighting all about, and then of a white tortoise rising from the water, and so gave the child the milk name White Jade. A brilliant boy, he was known early as a prodigy. In 1536, at twelve, he sat the prefectural examination, and his quickness so pleased the prefect of Jingzhou, Li Shiao, that he charged him to set his ambition high and serve the state loyally when grown, and changed his name to Juzheng; in the same year he became a prefectural student. In 1537 he entered the provincial examination but failed, the governor of Huguang, Gu Lin, having deliberately blocked him in the wish to temper him for greater things. In 1540 he passed the provincial examination and became a graduate, and Gu Lin, who thought highly of him and told others that here was material for a minister, unbuckled his own rhinoceros-horn belt and gave it to him, bidding him aim at great things and not rest content with being a precocious success.

In 1547, at twenty-three, Zhang Juzheng passed the metropolitan examination ninth in the second class and was made a bachelor of the Hanlin. Among his teachers were great ministers of the cabinet, and under the guidance of Xu Jie, who valued the learning needed to govern, he applied himself to the institutions and precedents of the dynasty, laying the foundation for his later career. The Ming had abolished the chancellorship and set up the cabinet in its place, its chief member being the senior grand secretary; during Zhang Juzheng's years in the Hanlin the cabinet was torn by a fierce struggle for power, in which Xia Yan, having won the first place, was slandered by Yan Song and put to death, and Yan Song succeeded him. Watching coldly through these years, Zhang Juzheng gained a plain view of the corruption of the government and the neglect of the frontier defences.

In 1549 he submitted his Memorial on the Affairs of the Time, setting out first the single disease of obstructed blood and breath and then the five diseases of swelling and numbness, and so laid out his programme of political reform; it drew no attention, and for the rest of the Jiajing reign, apart from routine memorials, he submitted nothing. In 1554, pleading illness, he left the capital for his native place and spent three years of leisure travelling among the famous places of the region. He found new problems there, writing in his record of Jingzhou prefecture that the land tax was uneven, the poor were ruined, and the people suffered from the engrossing of land, and the sense of duty this woke in him brought him back to politics. In 1557 he returned to the Hanlin, ripening amid his troubled reflections and, in the storms of politics, imitating his teacher Xu Jie by keeping his own counsel within while seeming to go with the stream, and moving only when the moment served. In 1564 he became a counsellor of the right in the right spring office and concurrently director of studies of the imperial college, and Xu Jie recommended him as lecturer and reader to the prince of Yu; through his college post he came to know many who would later enter office, and there opened his network of connections. On the death of Emperor Shizong in 1566, Xu Jie drafted the testamentary decree and took Zhang Juzheng into his counsels; he was soon promoted to be vice-president of the board of rites and concurrently a Hanlin academician, and a month later entered the cabinet with Chen Yiqin, the prince of Yu's former tutor, as vice-president of the board of personnel and grand secretary of the eastern pavilion.

In 1567, as vice-president of the board of personnel and grand secretary, Zhang Juzheng took part in the conduct of business, and in 1568 he submitted his Memorial on Six Matters, listing the six heads of reducing idle discussion, restoring discipline, giving weight to edicts, verifying names against realities, strengthening the foundation of the state and reforming military preparations — a programme of tightening the administration, testing performance and shoring up the frontier that became the platform of his later government.

Major Activities

Political Reform

During his ten years as senior grand secretary, Zhang Juzheng introduced a series of political reforms. In 1573 he implemented the Kaocheng assessment system, using the six supervising offices to monitor the six ministries and the Grand Secretariat to monitor the supervising offices. Administrative tasks were tracked through successive layers of responsibility, with clear rewards and punishments. The source text says that government orders came to be carried out even thousands of li away between morning and evening.

In 1576, the fourth year of Wanli, Zhang ordered punishment for local officials whose tax collection failed to reach ninety percent of the assigned quota. Ministry of Revenue statistics for the fifth year of Wanli are given in the source text as more than 4.35 million taels of annual revenue, compared with more than 2.5 million during the Jiajing era, an increase of 74 percent. Revenue exceeded expenditure by approximately 850,000 taels, reversing a long-standing fiscal deficit.

In the tenth lunar month of 1580, Zhang ordered the Ministry of Personnel to review offices in both capitals and eliminate redundant posts. In the first lunar month of 1581, 156 positions at and below vice-ministerial level in the Ministries of Revenue of both capitals were abolished. In the same year, several provincial posts, including the Grand Coordinators of Yunyang and Shuntian and the Regional Commander of Huguang, were eliminated. The source text says the number of civil and military officials fell from more than 120,000 to below 98,000.

Economic Reform

In 1578, Zhang used Fujian as a pilot area for cadastral measurement, which the source text says local people found advantageous. In 1580 the survey was extended nationwide and fish-scale land registers were redrawn. The national registered land total is given as 7,013,976 qing in 1580, 2,336,026 qing above the figure for 1571.

In 1581 Zhang ordered nationwide implementation of the Single whip law. The source text notes that the system had been tried much earlier: Tao Xie introduced it in Jiangxi in the second lunar month of 1531, the tenth year of Jiajing, and later officials including Yao Zongmu in Jiangxi, Pan Jixun in Guangdong, Pang Shangpeng in Zhejiang, Hai Rui in Yingtian, and Wang Qi in Cao County, Shandong, also used it. Zhang's role was to promote it across the empire. The reform simplified tax and labor categories and collection procedures, combined fiscal obligations, and moved toward the later fusion of the poll tax with the field tax. The Qing dynasty's combined land and poll tax system is described as a later development of the same tendency.

Zhang also advanced the economic view that agriculture should be supported through commerce and commerce benefited through agriculture. In a discussion with the tax commissioner Zhou Hanpu, sent by the Ministry of Works, he argued that in ancient statecraft merchants were allowed to move goods between places while farmers concentrated on production. If merchants could not exchange goods in ways that benefited agriculture, farmers suffered; if farmers could not produce the goods on which commerce depended, merchants suffered. He therefore compared agriculture and commerce to the two sides of a balance.

Military and Frontier Policy

Zhang Juzheng was known for selecting and supporting capable commanders and relied on Li Chengliang and Qi Jiguang to defend the northern frontier. In 1570 he directed policy in handling the defection of Baya Ači, helping create the conditions for the Longqing Peace Agreement. In 1571, with Zhang and others urging the policy, the Longqing Emperor granted Altan Khan the title Prince of Loyalty and Obedience and opened horse markets at three frontier commands, ending years of warfare and establishing trade.

In the south, the source text states that Zhang permitted Guangzhou to hold two “trade fairs” each year. He also employed Ling Yunyi and Yin Zhengmao to suppress southwestern rebellions and Pan Jixun to manage the Yellow River, measures it describes as effective.

Cultural Policy

The source text states that Zhang Juzheng was familiar with both the right wing of Wang Yangming learning and Zhu Xi's Neo-Confucian tradition. In order to protect the interests of the ruling order, he ordered academies on famous mountains closed and prohibited criticism of current government.

After Wang Shouren established Yangming learning, its more radical currents developed over several decades. The Taizhou school associated with figures such as He Xinyin and Li Zhi promoted ideas of human self-expression and liberation. The source text states that He Xinyin was imprisoned and beaten to death in connection with Zhang Juzheng's administration, while noting Li Zhi's view that Zhang had not personally ordered the killing and that local officials acted to curry favor with him.

Relationship with the Wanli Emperor and Feng Bao

Zhang Juzheng allied himself with Feng Bao, the Bingbi Eunuch of the Directorate of Ceremonial, and in 1572 the two worked together to remove Gao Gong from the Grand Secretariat. At the beginning of the Wanli reign the emperor was a child, and Zhang enjoyed the complete confidence of Empress Dowager Li, the emperor's mother. The source text states that he presided over virtually all major military and political decisions.

In 1579, after the young emperor behaved improperly while drinking and playing with eunuchs at night, Empress Dowager Li rebuked him, and Zhang drafted an edict of self-reproach for the emperor. The source text treats this episode as contributing to the resentment that later developed.

On another occasion, while reading the Analects, the Wanli Emperor mispronounced a character. Zhang corrected him sharply and loudly, frightening the emperor and surprising the assembled ministers. Shen Defu's Wanli Yehuo Bian is quoted as saying that under Zhang's regency-like authority, palace and government acted as one, all officials followed his lead, and ministerial authority had rarely been so great in the Ming.

Late in Zhang's career, his power became extensive enough that the source text says even the emperor feared him. When Zhang returned home to bury his father, he traveled in a luxurious sedan chair carried by thirty-two men and equipped with a toilet and simple bathing facilities. Meals were said to consist of more than a hundred dishes, yet “he still found nowhere to place his chopsticks.” Such accounts contributed to accusations of arrogance, luxury, and monopolization of authority. His two sons' exceptional examination success, including first and second place, also became a source of criticism.

Personal Relations

• Zhang Cheng: great-grandfather
• Zhang Zhen: grandfather
• Zhang Wenming (1504–1577): father
• Lady Zhao: mother
• Zhang Juren: elder brother
• Zhang Jujing, Zhang Ju'an, Zhang Juyi, Zhang Jukuan, Zhang Juye, Zhang Juxue, Zhang Juzhong: younger brothers
• Lady Gu: principal wife; her elder brother was the examination graduate Gu Yi, who later changed his surname and name to Deng Qizong
• Zhang Jingxiu: eldest son; married Lady Gao, had a son Zhang Zhonghui and three daughters, and a grandson Zhang Tongchang
• Zhang Sixiu: second son
• Zhang Maoxiu: third son
• Li Shiao: Prefect of Jingzhou who changed his name to “Juzheng”
• Gu Lin: Huguang Grand Coordinator who admired his ability, gave him a rhinoceros-hide belt, and called him “talent fit for a general or chancellor”
• Xu Jie: senior grand secretary and Zhang's Hanlin instructor; deeply influenced his political thinking
• Gao Gong: senior grand secretary during the Longqing reign; first an ally and later a political rival
• Qi Jiguang: general whom Zhang employed on the northern frontier
• Li Chengliang: general whom Zhang employed in Liaodong
• Pan Jixun: river-control specialist employed to manage the Yellow River
• Feng Bao: Bingbi Eunuch of the Directorate of Ceremonial and political ally
• Jiajing Emperor, Zhu Houcong: Ming ruler who did not adopt Zhang's early reform proposals
• Longqing Emperor, Zhu Zaiji: Zhang's former princely patron, who trusted and employed him
• Wanli Emperor, Zhu Yijun: ascended the throne as a child; Zhang directed government for ten years during his minority and was politically attacked after death
• Empress Dowager Li: mother of the Wanli Emperor; placed complete confidence in Zhang
• Yan Song: senior grand secretary under Jiajing who dominated court politics; Zhang's reform memorial was not adopted under his ascendancy
• Gao Gong: Longqing senior grand secretary, removed from the Grand Secretariat through the political alliance of Zhang and Feng Bao; the source text notes that some modern scholars dispute aspects of this account
• Wu Zhongxing, Zhao Yongxian, Ai Mu, Shen Sixiao, Zou Yuanbiao: officials who opposed Zhang in the mourning controversy and were subjected to court beatings or other punishment
• He Xinyin: Taizhou school thinker whom the source text says was imprisoned and beaten to death under Zhang's administration
• Li Zhi, Yang Keli, and Jiang Dongzhi: censors who attacked Zhang or Feng Bao after Zhang's death

Historical Assessment

Ming / Contemporary

• Shen Defu in Wanli Yehuo Bian wrote that under Zhang Juzheng, “palace and government were one, all officials followed his lead, and the weight of ministerial authority had rarely been matched in this dynasty; officials received completed decisions with folded hands, and his authority exceeded even that of a stern ruler and father.”
• Yu Shenxing, who had himself been excluded during the mourning controversy, wrote that while Zhang held power the entire court competed to praise his achievements and dared not mention his faults, but after his fall the whole court competed to seek his crimes and dared not mention his achievements; neither, he said, represented the full truth.
• Shen Shixing, Zhang's successor as senior grand secretary, described the pitiful condition of Zhang's elderly mother and descendants after the confiscation and said that even passers-by would shed tears.
• Xu Guo, grand secretary, wrote that whereas formerly the reversal of right and wrong had lain with petty men, it now lay with those who called themselves gentlemen, who formed factions, attacked opponents, deceived the ruler, and pursued private interests.
• The Chongzhen Emperor was quoted as saying that after thinking of Jiangling he understood that “a hundred mediocre ministers are not worth one minister capable of saving the age.”

Early and High Qing

• The History of Ming described Zhang as having “broad understanding of changing circumstances and courage in undertaking affairs,” while also criticizing his grip on authority as nearly overawing the sovereign.
• Qing historians often acknowledged the effectiveness of his reforms but criticized his concentration of power and his decision to remain in office during mourning.
• The source text states that the Qianlong Emperor judged Zhang as “talented but without virtue,” regarding his reforms as effective but excessively forceful.

Late Qing and Republican Era

• Liang Qichao, in his writing on historical research, called Zhang Juzheng “the only great statesman of the Ming.”
• Republican-era scholars often praised him and interpreted his program as the last major attempt at political recovery before the late Ming decline.
• Qian Mu's Outline of National History is cited as arguing that the Kaocheng assessment system strengthened central authority but also contributed to rigidity in the bureaucratic system.

Modern and Contemporary

• Ray Huang's 1587, A Year of No Significance presents Zhang Juzheng as a tragic political figure and analyzes the conflict between his reform efforts and structural limits of the Ming system.
• Zhu Dongrun's biography of Zhang Juzheng strongly affirms his historical achievements and describes him as the greatest Ming statesman.
• Wei Qingyuan's study of Zhang Juzheng and mid-to-late Ming politics analyzes the reforms' place in Ming history and treats the Single whip law as a major turning point in the history of Chinese taxation.
• The source text summarizes a common modern scholarly view that the Zhang Juzheng Reforms were the most successful attempt at self-strengthening in the middle and late Ming but collapsed after his death because they challenged entrenched interests; the posthumous purge marked the end of the reform program.