Merkit Bayan

Biography

Family Background and Early Years

Bayan came from the Merkit clan, a family of established Yuan merit. The Merkit had once been a powerful people of the Mongolian steppe. They were conquered during Chinggis Khan's unification of the Mongols, after which their population was divided and gradually absorbed into various Mongol groups. Bayan's grandfather Chenghai won merit in campaigns during the reign of Kublai Khan, Emperor Shizu of the Yuan, laying the family's political foundation. Bayan was born around 1295, the first year of the Yuanzhen era, and entered the palace as an attendant while still young. His imposing appearance and quick speech won the favor of Yuan Wuzong.

Rise in Office

Bayan's official career began under Wuzong. He successively served as Minister of Personnel and Censor-in-Chief. During the Yanyou era he became Pingzhang Zhengshi of the Jiangzhe Branch Secretariat; during the Taiding era he was transferred to the same office in the Jiangxi Branch Secretariat, accumulating administrative experience in provincial government. After the Taiding Emperor died, the War of the Two Capitals broke out. Bayan assessed the situation and supported Tugh Temür, later Yuan Wenzong. In 1328, the first year of the Tianli era, he was appointed Left Chancellor of the Central Secretariat and entered the core of government. During the Zhishun era he was enfeoffed as Prince of Juning and appointed Grand Tutor.

Monopoly of Power

In 1333, the first year of the Yuantong era, Toghon Temür ascended the throne as Yuan Shundi, and Bayan came into conflict with El Temür over the succession. After El Temür died, his son Tangqishi inherited his position. In 1335, the first year of the Zhiyuan era, Tangqishi and his younger brother Talakhai rebelled. Bayan was ordered to suppress the revolt and had both men executed, completely eliminating the El Temür faction. Bayan thereafter monopolized court government, was enfeoffed as Prince of Qin, and served as Grand Preceptor and Right Chancellor of the Central Secretariat, “holding the reins of the state alone” and exercising power arbitrarily. In 1337, the third year of the Zhiyuan era, Bayan memorialized that Han Chinese with the five surnames Zhang, Wang, Liu, Li, and Zhao should be killed, but Shundi did not approve the proposal. In 1338, the fourth year of the Zhiyuan era, Bayan advanced to Grand Preceptor and reached the height of his power.

Dismissal and Death

Bayan's monopolization of authority aroused Yuan Shundi's dissatisfaction. His nephew Toqto'a also feared that Bayan might kill him and therefore conspired with the emperor. In February 1340, the sixth year of the Zhiyuan era, Shundi proclaimed Bayan's offenses to the empire and demoted him to Left Chancellor of the Henan Branch Secretariat. In the third month Bayan died of illness at Longxing Circuit, present-day Nanchang in Jiangxi.

The Merkit clan from which Bayan came had been a powerful tribe of the Mongolian plateau, conquered when Chinggis Khan unified Mongolia, its people divided among the thousands and gradually absorbed into the Mongol tribes; his grandfather Čingqai had served with distinction under Kublai and laid the family's political foundation. Bayan entered the palace as an attendant in his youth, and being imposing in person and quick in speech won the favor of Emperor Wuzong; his career began under Wuzong, he served as minister of personnel and censor-in-chief, was made grand councillor of Jiangzhe in the Yanyou years and of Jiangxi under Taiding, gaining administrative experience in the provinces.

On the death of Emperor Taiding the war of the two capitals broke out, and Bayan, judging the times, supported Tugh Temür, being made left chancellor of the Secretariat in 1328 and entering the inner circle of power; in the Zhishun years he was enfeoffed as Prince of Junning and made grand tutor. When Emperor Shun took the throne in 1333 he differed with El Temür over the succession; after El Temür's death his son Tangqishi inherited his post, and in 1335 Tangqishi and his brother Talahai rebelled, whereupon Bayan put them down by decree and exterminated the El Temür faction. He was then enfeoffed as Prince of Qin and made grand preceptor and right chancellor of the Secretariat, "holding the balance of the state alone," with the Secretariat, the Privy Council and the Censorate largely in his single hand; memorials had to be reported to him first, and Emperor Shun grew increasingly dissatisfied.

In power Bayan carried out a series of controversial measures. In 1335 he asked that the examinations be abolished, holding that they brought the state no benefit and that inheritance and recommendation should replace them; despite the protests of scholar-officials it was done, with lasting effect on the civil government of the later Yuan. In 1337 he asked that the Chinese of the five surnames Zhang, Wang, Liu, Li and Zhao be killed, on the ground that they were too numerous and might rise, and only the emperor's refusal stopped it; he also contrived the deaths of the Prince of Tan, Čočtu, and the Prince of Qocho, Temür Buqa, both innocent. These measures reflected and deepened the ethnic and political tensions of the late Yuan and earned him a black name among Chinese officials.

Emperor Shun and Bayan's own nephew Toqto'a plotted his removal. In the second month of 1340 the emperor proclaimed his crimes and demoted him to left chancellor of Henan; in the third month he was ordered resettled in Yangchun county of Nan'en prefecture and died of illness at the post station of Longxing circuit, ending the few years of his domination, after which Toqto'a took charge and restored the examinations.

Bayan's part in the war of the two capitals deserves separate note. When Emperor Taiding died at Shangdu in 1328, El Temür raised Tugh Temür at Dadu while the Shangdu party set up Taiding's son, and the two courts fought for the realm. Bayan, then grand councillor of Henan, supported Dadu and controlled Henan, the central strategic region, securing the rear of Wenzong's cause, and for that was made left chancellor of the Secretariat and brought into the central government. The succession then changed rapidly: Wenzong yielded to his brother Mingzong, who died suddenly, whereupon Wenzong resumed the throne, and after his death El Temür dominated the court until Emperor Shun's accession in 1333.

Once Shun was enthroned, Bayan's disagreement with El Temür over the succession strained relations between them; after El Temür's death his son Tangqishi inherited his post and grew disaffected, plotting with his brother Talahai in 1335 to set up a prince of the blood, and was defeated and killed. Having put down this revolt, Bayan was enfeoffed as Prince of Qin and made grand preceptor and right chancellor of the Secretariat, holding also the powers of the Privy Council and the Censorate; memorials had to come to him first and the emperor himself felt constrained. His partisans filled the departments, and his nephew Toqto'a was promoted as censor-in-chief. In 1340 the emperor, with Toqto'a and the close attendants Shijieban and Alu, shut the city gates while Bayan was hunting at Liulin and issued an edict listing his crimes, first demoting him to left chancellor of Henan and then ordering him resettled in Yangchun county of Nan'en prefecture; he died of illness at the Longxing post station. The Book of Yuan records that he "held the balance of the state alone and gave himself up to arbitrary power," overturning established law and injuring the innocent, and his fall is taken as a turning point in late Yuan politics, after which Toqto'a took charge and restored the examinations the following year.

After Kublai, the Yuan saw one overmighty minister after another, El Temür before Bayan and Toqto'a and Bolod Temür after him, so that Bayan's domination is often taken as typical of late Yuan politics. His abolition of the examinations directly closed the path of advancement for scholars until Toqto'a restored them in 1340; in ethnic policy he asked for the killing of the Chinese of five surnames and for a ban on Han and southerners bearing arms, reflecting the suspicion of the Chinese among Mongol nobles of the time. In power he also contrived the deaths of the Prince of Tan, Čočtu, and the Prince of Qocho, Temür Buqa, both innocent, all of which the Book of Yuan records among his crimes. His brother Marjidai and his nephew Toqto'a held office in turn, and it was Toqto'a who, plotting with Emperor Shun, removed him and then presided over the reform that restored the examinations, making him another key figure in the politics of the late Yuan.

After his removal Toqto'a took charge of the government, and Yuan politics entered a phase of transition from the old to the new.

The course of his domination is set out in his biography in the Book of Yuan.

Major Activities

Political Activities

Bayan played a major role in late-Yuan politics. In the War of the Two Capitals in 1328, the first year of the Tianli era, he supported Yuan Wenzong and contributed to Wenzong's eventual victory. In 1333, the first year of the Yuantong era, he disagreed with El Temür over the imperial succession. After El Temür's death, his son Tangqishi rebelled in 1335. Bayan was ordered to suppress the revolt and executed Tangqishi and Talakhai, eliminating his political rivals. He thereafter monopolized government and became overwhelmingly powerful.

Abolition of the Imperial Examinations

In 1335, the first year of the Zhiyuan era, Bayan proposed abolishing the imperial examination system. He considered examination recruitment of little benefit to the state and advocated hereditary appointment and recommendation instead. Many Confucian officials opposed the measure, but Bayan insisted on carrying it out. The abolition of the examinations had a profound impact on civil governance in the middle and late Yuan.

Controversy over Ethnic Policy

In 1337, the third year of the Zhiyuan era, Bayan proposed killing Han Chinese bearing the five surnames Zhang, Wang, Liu, Li, and Zhao, arguing that these surnames had large populations and might create disorder. Yuan Shundi refused approval, and the proposal came to nothing. The episode reflected intensifying ethnic tensions in the late Yuan and deepened Bayan's negative reputation among Han Chinese scholar-officials.

Conflict with Toqto'a

Bayan's nephew Toqto'a was a trusted subordinate whom Bayan had promoted and who rose to Censor-in-Chief. As Bayan's autocratic conduct increased, Toqto'a feared being implicated and conspired with Yuan Shundi to remove him. In 1340, the sixth year of the Zhiyuan era, Toqto'a took advantage of Bayan's absence on a hunting excursion, carried out an imperial order to close the city gates, proclaimed Bayan's offenses, and had him removed from power.

Personal Relations

• Grandfather: Chenghai, who earned merit in campaigns under Yuan Shizu
• Nephew: Toqto'a, prominent late-Yuan minister who later engineered Bayan's removal
• Yuan Wenzong: Bayan supported Wenzong in the War of the Two Capitals and was heavily employed afterward
• Yuan Shundi: Bayan's relationship with Shundi moved from cooperation to confrontation, and Shundi ultimately removed him
• El Temür: powerful late-Yuan minister and Bayan's principal political rival; died in 1333, the first year of the Yuantong era
• Tangqishi: son of El Temür; rebelled in 1335, the first year of the Zhiyuan era, and was executed by Bayan

Historical Assessment

Yuan Period / Contemporary

• The “Biography of Bayan” in the History of Yuan describes him as “arrogating power to himself without the propriety expected of a minister,” criticizing his arbitrary exercise of authority.
• An edict of Yuan Shundi accused Bayan of being “unable to keep to his proper place and arrogating power to himself,” listed his offenses, and demoted him to Left Chancellor of the Henan Branch Secretariat.
• Toqto'a described Bayan as having “monopolized power for a long time, causing alienation both at court and beyond,” arguing that his autocracy had generated broad discontent.

Ming and Qing Periods

• Ming historian Hu Cuizhong, in Continuation of the History of Yuan, criticized Bayan for “abolishing the examinations out of private resentment and, from suspicion, seeking to kill Han people of five surnames,” regarding these policies as serious errors.
• Qing historian Bi Yuan recorded Bayan's autocratic conduct in the Continuation of the Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance, describing him as “awe-inspiring throughout court and country” but also as “not knowing when to advance or withdraw,” which ultimately brought about his fall.
• Qing scholar Zhao Yi, in Critical Notes on the Twenty-Two Histories, discussed late-Yuan powerful ministers and argued that Bayan's monopolization of authority was no different from El Temür's, both resulting from weak rulers and powerful ministers.

Modern Period

• Modern scholar Hsiao Ch'i-ch'ing, in Ethnicity, Culture, and the Imperial Examinations in the Yuan Dynasty, identifies Bayan's abolition of the examinations as an important sign of political decline in the Yuan.
• Yao Dali, in Institutions and Political Culture of the Mongol-Yuan, analyzes the institutional background of Bayan's autocratic power and relates its expansion to the distinctive features of the Yuan chancellorship.
• Scholarship generally holds that Bayan's monopolization of authority intensified the late-Yuan political crisis and that measures such as abolishing the imperial examinations had a negative effect on Yuan civil governance.