Biography
Family Background and Early Life
Han Tuozhou was born on November 6, 1152, the eighth day of the tenth month in the twenty-second year of the Shaoxing era under Emperor Gaozong of Song. He came from the Han clan of Anyang, Xiangzhou. His great-grandfather Han Qi had been a major minister under the Northern Song emperors Renzong, Yingzong, and Shenzong, rose to the chief ministership, and was enfeoffed as Prince of Wei Commandery. His grandfather Han Jiayan married Princess Qi, a daughter of Emperor Shenzong of Song, creating close marriage ties between the Han family and the imperial house. Han's father Han Cheng held an official post, though the specific office is not given in the source. His mother was a younger sister of Empress Wu, consort of Emperor Gaozong of Song. Han himself married a niece of Empress Wu, creating a double connection to the Southern Song imperial family through marriage.
As a young man, Han entered government through hereditary privilege and successively served in posts connected with the Palace Ceremonial Gate Office, including ceremonial attendance and carrying weapons in the imperial presence. The Palace Ceremonial Gate Office was responsible for court audiences, ritual guidance, and the ceremonial introduction of officials. These posts were not among the highest offices, but they brought Han into close proximity to the emperor and gave him access to palace affairs and court networks. In 1189, the sixteenth year of the Chunxi era, Han rose to Defense Commissioner of Ruzhou and director of the Palace Ceremonial Gate Office. As head of that office he oversaw ceremonial protocol at court audiences and banquets. Though the rank itself was not especially high, the position was politically important and gave him an intimate understanding of palace operations and personal connections.
The Forced Abdication of Emperor Guangzong of Song and Credit for the Succession
In the sixth month of 1194, the fifth year of the Shaoxi era, Emperor Xiaozong of Song died. The reigning Emperor Guangzong, Zhao Dun, had long been estranged from his father Xiaozong. Guangzong's empress Li Fengniang was described as fiercely jealous and as having worsened relations between father and son, while Guangzong repeatedly claimed illness and avoided visiting Xiaozong. After Xiaozong's death, Guangzong again pleaded illness, did not appear, and failed to perform the mourning rites, shocking court and country. Imperial clansman Zhao Ruyu, Han Tuozhou as director of the Palace Ceremonial Gate Office, Minister of Works Zhao Yanyu, Xu Yi, Ye Shi, palace commander Guo Gao, and others secretly planned to place Guangzong's son Zhao Kuo, Prince of Jia, on the throne.
Because Han was a nephew of Grand Empress Dowager Wu and was on good terms with the eunuch Zhang Zongyin of Cifu Palace, Zhao Ruyu asked Han to use Zhang to submit a secret memorial to the grand empress dowager. Han went twice to the palace gate but was unable to enter. While hesitating there he encountered Guan Li, administrator of Chonghua Palace, who entered the palace and presented the matter in earnest terms, eventually obtaining Grand Empress Dowager Wu's support. That night Zhao Ruyu urgently ordered palace commander Guo Gao to station troops around the palace precincts. The next day, Grand Empress Dowager Wu governed from behind a curtain before Emperor Xiaozong's spirit tablet, announced Guangzong's abdication, and placed Zhao Kuo, Prince of Jia, on the throne as Emperor Ningzong. This episode is known as the Forced Abdication of Emperor Guangzong of Song.
After Ningzong's accession, Han regarded himself as having earned decisive credit and expected a generous reward. Zhao Ruyu objected, saying in substance that Zhao himself was an imperial clansman while Han was an imperial in-law and therefore should not claim the sort of merit rewarded to military retainers. Guo Gao accordingly received a military commission, while Han was promoted only to Surveillance Commissioner of Yizhou and chief executive secretary of the Bureau of Military Affairs. Han was deeply dissatisfied. Because he frequently transmitted imperial instructions, however, he gradually won Ningzong's trust and began to exercise growing power.
The Han–Zhao Political Struggle and the Qingyuan Proscription
After Zhao Ruyu became Right Chief Councilor, he recommended Neo-Confucian scholars and brought Zhu Xi to court as a lecturer to Emperor Ningzong. Zhu Xi advised Zhao to reward Han generously for his role in the succession but then find a way to remove him from the political center. Zhao did not follow the advice. Huang Du, a remonstrance official, intended to impeach Han, but the plan leaked and Huang was dismissed. Zhu Xi publicly denounced Han as treacherous. Enraged, Han had performers appear before Ningzong dressed as great Confucian scholars in a mocking caricature of Zhu Xi, and Zhu was forced to leave the court. Peng Guinian asked that Zhu Xi be retained and Han expelled, but Peng himself was sent out of the capital. Han meanwhile received promotion as Commissioner of Pacification of the Baoning Army.
Liu Bi, who had once served with Han in the Palace Ceremonial Gate Office, then proposed using censors and remonstrance officials to impeach Zhao Ruyu and employing “inner endorsements,” direct appointments written by the emperor, to place Han's allies in those posts. Han followed this strategy. By imperial handwriting Liu Dexiu was appointed Investigating Censor and Yang Dafa Palace Censor; Wu Lie was dismissed and replaced by Liu Sanjie. From that point the remonstrance apparatus was dominated by Han's political supporters.
In the second month of 1195, the first year of the Qingyuan era, Han and Jing Tang conspired against Zhao Ruyu. Jing Tang argued that because Zhao was a member of the imperial clan, it would be enough to accuse him of plotting to endanger the state. Han recommended Li Mu as Right Remonstrance Official. Li then memorialized that it was dangerous for an imperial clansman bearing the same surname as the emperor to occupy the chief ministership, and Zhao Ruyu was removed. Zhu Xi, Peng Guinian, Huang Du, Li Xiang, Yang Jian, Lü Zujian, and others were subsequently punished for opposing Han, and six Imperial University students led by Yang Hongzhong were placed under administrative restriction after submitting a memorial.
In the sixth month of 1195 Han was promoted to Military Commissioner of the Baoning Army. He labeled Neo-Confucian learning “false learning,” promulgated lists of such teachings, and appointed He Dan and Hu Hong as remonstrance officials. He Dan memorialized for stricter controls, while Hu Hong listed ten alleged offenses of disrespect by Zhao Ruyu. Zhao was banished to Yongzhou. While passing through Hengzhou, according to the source, Han secretly instructed the prefect Qian Mou to have him killed; Zhao subsequently died suddenly after reaching Hengzhou.
In 1196, the second year of Qingyuan, Chief Councilor Liu Zheng, who had earlier humiliated Han publicly in the government hall, was impeached by Liu Dexiu for recommending members of the “false learning” faction and was removed from office. Minister of Personnel Ye Zhu pressured Vice Minister Ni Si to join in attacking Neo-Confucian learning. When Ni refused, Han promoted Ye and dismissed Ni. In the seventh month of that year Han received the honorific rank Kaifu Yitong Sansi. He recalled Chen Jia, who had previously attacked Zhu Xi, as Vice Minister of War and appointed Shen Jizu as censor. Shen accused Zhu Xi of ten major crimes, and Zhu was stripped of office and religious sinecures.
In 1197, the third year of Qingyuan, Liu Sanjie stated in an imperial audience that the “false-learning faction” had become a “rebel faction.” Han was delighted and made him Right Remonstrance Official that same day. Wang Yan proposed that the central departments record the names of members of the faction, and Yao Yu requested an edict strengthening the prohibition. That winter Ningzong ordered the compilation of the “Register of the Rebel Faction of False Learning,” listing fifty-nine people, including Zhao Ruyu, Liu Zheng, Zhu Xi, Zhou Bida, Peng Guinian, Xu Yi, and Yang Hongzhong.
In 1199, the fifth year of Qingyuan, Han instructed Cai Lian, who had once been tattooed as a criminal under Zhao Ruyu, to accuse Zhao of having entertained ulterior motives during the succession. Han intended to arrest Peng Guinian, Zeng Sanpin, Xu Yi, and Shen Youkai and send them to the Court of Judicial Review for interrogation, but Secretariat Drafter Fan Zhongyi argued strongly against it and stopped the plan. In the ninth month of the same year Han was promoted to Junior Preceptor and enfeoffed as Prince of Pingyuan Commandery. In the tenth month of 1200 he advanced to Grand Tutor. Lü Zutai, a commoner of Wuzhou, submitted a memorial calling for Han's execution and was beaten with the rod and exiled to Qinzhou.
After Jing Tang's death, Han gradually tired of the proscription. Zhang Xiaobo warned that unless the restrictions were relaxed, Han might someday face retaliation. His relative by marriage Chen Jingsi likewise urged him not to carry matters too far. Han therefore restored Zhao Ruyu and Zhu Xi posthumously or administratively to office; Liu Zheng and Zhou Bida were also restored, while Xu Yi and others successively recovered their posts. The prohibition on “false learning” gradually came to an end.
Concentration of Power and the Kaixi Northern Expedition
In 1201, the first year of the Jiatai era, Xia Yunzhong, an official supervising the Taiping Huimin medical agency, memorialized that Han should be appointed to oversee major military and state affairs following the precedent of Wen Yanbo. Han made a show of declining and requested retirement. Emperor Ningzong refused, while Xia Yunzhong himself was dismissed. By this time Han was already Grand Preceptor. He used power and patronage to attract scholar-officials, and Xue Shusi, Xin Qiji, Chen Qian, and others were brought into service. His childhood tutor Chen Ziqiang rose from the lower ranks to the chief ministership within only a few years, while servants such as Su Shidan and Zhou Yun were also allowed to hear state business. Chief ministers and other senior officials rarely dared oppose Han's wishes, and Chen Ziqiang even gave him blank appointment documents to fill in as he pleased.
In 1205, the first year of Kaixi, Han was appointed to oversee military and state affairs and ranked above the chief councilors, thereby concentrating military and civil power in his hands. He aimed to recover the Central Plains. With Ningzong's support he posthumously elevated Yue Fei to Prince of E, stripped Qin Gui of his princely title, and changed Qin's posthumous title to “Miuchou.” Pro-war figures such as Lu You, Xin Qiji, and Ye Shi placed hopes in these actions. Lu You wrote the “Record of the Southern Garden” for Han and urged him not to forget the goal of resisting the Jin and restoring lost territory.
In 1206, the second year of Kaixi, Emperor Ningzong issued an edict ordering war against the Jin, beginning the Kaixi Northern Expedition. Han appointed Wu Xi, deputy pacification commissioner of Sichuan, concurrently as recruitment commissioner for Shaanxi and Hedong; Guo Ni as recruitment commissioner for Shandong, the capital region, and Luoyang; and Zhao Chun and Huangfu Bin as recruitment commissioner and deputy commissioner for Jingxi North. Song forces achieved limited successes at first but soon suffered repeated defeats. Wu Xi's rebellion in Sichuan and submission to the Jin dealt a particularly severe blow. Jin armies advanced south, putting the Song in a dangerous position. Han sent envoys to seek peace, but the Jin demanded that he be bound and delivered to their camp for punishment. Han reacted angrily, recalled Zhang Yan from his post as pacification commissioner of the two Huai regions, appointed Zhao Chun as military commissioner for the two Huai to defend the Yangtze–Huai area, and contributed two hundred thousand from his own wealth in preparation for renewed war.
The Yujin Garden Coup and Posthumous Events
In 1207, the third year of Kaixi, Vice Minister of Rites Shi Miyuan concurrently served as an instructor in Zishan Hall. Through his student Zhao Xilu, he established contact with Empress Yang Guizhi, who had long been at odds with Han, and they plotted Han's killing. Empress Yang's elder brother Yang Cishan joined the conspiracy as an imperial in-law.
On the second day of the eleventh month, November 23, 1207, Emperor Ningzong separately issued three handwritten directives: one to Qian Xiangzu, Wei Jing, Shi Miyuan, and others; one to Zhang Zi; and one to Li Xiaochun. Zhang Zi and Li Xiaochun did not move, but Qian Xiangzu urgently delivered the order to Xia Zhen of the Palace Command. Xia initially appeared reluctant. After seeing the imperial directive he said, “It is the sovereign's command; I shall give my life to carry it out.” The next day Xia ordered his subordinates Zheng Fa and Wang Bin to intercept Han's carriage at Liubu Bridge. Inside the enclosed walls of Yujin Garden, Xia struck Han with an iron whip. The blow hit Han in the groin and killed him on the spot.
After killing Han, Shi Miyuan abolished the regional pacification commands and pursued peace with the Jin. Han's coffin was opened, his head cut off, and the head sent to the Jin. The resulting Song–Jin Peace Treaty of Jiading Era changed the ritual relationship between the two states from one described as “uncle and nephew” to one described as “elder uncle and nephew.” When Han's head reached the Jin, Jin remonstrance officials regarded him as loyal to his own state and memorialized for a posthumous title. The Jin bestowed the title “Zhongmiu” and buried him beside the graveyard of Han Qi.
After Han's death, his follower Su Shidan was also killed and his head sent to the Jin. Chen Ziqiang was removed from the chief ministership and exiled to Leizhou. Han had no biological son; his adopted son Han Yan, originally the son of Lu Shen, was exiled to Shamen Island.