Ashina Qutlugh

Biography

Family Background and Early Life

Qutlugh belonged to the Ashina royal clan and was a distant descendant of Illig Qaghan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. The Ashina were the ruling house of the Turkic khaganates. After the Eastern Turkic Khaganate fell in 630, the fourth year of Zhenguan, large numbers of Turkic people submitted to Tang. Qutlugh's grandfather became a chief serving under Sheli Yuanying, the Tang-appointed governor of Yunzhong on the right wing of the Chanyu Protectorate in the Hetao region of present-day Inner Mongolia. The family held the Turkic office of tudun chor on a hereditary basis. Under Tang rule, the Turkic tribes remained relatively stable for nearly half a century, but the Tang court frequently conscripted them for military campaigns, gradually producing resentment and fostering restorationist ambitions among some tribal elites.

In the tenth lunar month of 679, the first year of Tiaolu, Ashide Wenfu and Ashina Fengzhi, chiefs under the Chanyu Protectorate, rebelled against Tang and proclaimed Ashina Nishufu qaghan. Turkic chiefs from twenty-four prefectures responded, bringing several hundred thousand people into the movement. In the third lunar month of 680, the first year of Yonglong, Pei Xingjian, commander of the Tang Dingxiang expeditionary army, defeated the Turks at Heishan near the Daqing Mountains of modern Baotou, captured Ashina Fengzhi, and Nishufu Qaghan was killed by his own men. The remaining Turks withdrew west toward Langshan. Ashide Wenfu then brought his clansman-nephew Ashina Funian north across the Yellow River from Xiazhou and proclaimed him qaghan.

In 681, the first year of Kaiyao, Ashina Funian and Ashide Wenfu jointly attacked Yuanzhou and Qingzhou. That autumn, under Tang pressure, Funian arrested Wenfu and surrendered to Pei Xingjian. Pei promised that Funian's life would be spared, but after returning to the capital Pei Yan, jealous of Pei Xingjian's achievements, urged Emperor Gaozong to have Funian executed. The emperor's breach of the pledge angered the Turks and helped create the conditions for Qutlugh's subsequent revolt.

Rising in Revolt and Restoring the State

After the defeat of Ashina Funian and Ashide Wenfu, Qutlugh left with seventeen followers, gathered scattered Turkic remnants along the way, and withdrew to Zongcai Mountain. In 682, the second year of Kaiyao, his following grew to more than seven hundred men, and he occupied Heisha Castle near modern Hohhot. After a period of expansion, his force reached more than five thousand. He then raided the Toquz Oghuz and seized large herds of sheep and horses, strengthening his position.

When he judged the time ripe, Qutlugh occupied the Ötüken Mountains in the northern steppe, in the upper Orkhon–Khangai region of modern Mongolia, established a royal encampment, and rebuilt the Turkic polity, known to later historians as the Second Turkic Khaganate. He proclaimed himself Ilterish Qaghan, made Heisha Castle the southern headquarters, appointed his brother Ashina Mo Chuo as shad, and made Duoxifu yabghu.

At that time Ashide Yuanzhen, an official charged with supervising surrendered tribes under the Chanyu Protectorate, had been imprisoned by the chief secretary Wang Benli for an offense. On hearing that Qutlugh had rebelled, Yuanzhen falsely claimed that he could persuade the Turkic tribes to disperse and thereby atone for his crime, then took the opportunity to join Qutlugh. Yuanzhen was an astute political strategist who had long lived in the Chinese heartland and knew the strengths and weaknesses of Tang frontier defenses. His arrival greatly strengthened Qutlugh's position. Qutlugh immediately appointed him Apa Tarkhan and put him in command of the army; at the height of their power, the Turkic cavalry was said to number in the hundreds of thousands.

Repeated Attacks on Tang

In the twelfth lunar month of 683, the first year of Hongdao, Emperor Gaozong died. Wu Zetian dominated the court, purged political opponents, and provoked uprisings by pro-Tang officials such as Li Jingye and by imperial princes including Li Chong and Li Zhen. At the same time, the Tibetan Empire and the Western Turks repeatedly attacked the northwest, and the Qinghai and Anxi regions were under pressure. Tang armies were sent out year after year on multiple fronts. Qutlugh exploited this combination of internal and external crises to launch a series of offensives against Tang.

Qutlugh and Ashide Yuanzhen moved south, first attacking Bingzhou and the northern border of the Chanyu Protectorate. They killed Wang Demao, prefect of Lanzhou, and detached forces to raid Dingzhou. Tang appointed Xue Rengui, acting governor of Daizhou, to counterattack. Ashide Yuanzhen met Xue at Yunzhou, near modern Datong, and was defeated: more than ten thousand of his men were killed, more than twenty thousand captured, and over thirty thousand camels, horses, cattle, and sheep were lost.

On 12 February 684, the first year of Sisheng, Qutlugh attacked Dingzhou but was repelled by Prince Huo Li Yuangui. Five days later he turned toward Guizhou in the modern Huairou area, and on 2 March he surrounded the Chanyu Protectorate, capturing and killing its military assistant Zhang Xingshi. Tang sent Li Chongyi, governor of Shengzhou and Xiazhou, with relief forces on separate routes. On 18 May, Qutlugh raided Weizhou, centered on Lingqiu in modern Shanxi, and killed the prefect Li Sijian. Cui Zhibian, governor of Fengzhou, intercepted him north of Chaona Mountain in the modern Wuyuan area, but Qutlugh counterattacked, captured Cui, and killed him. Under the pressure of Qutlugh's attacks, Wu Zetian at one point considered abandoning Fengzhou, but the prefectural military officer Tang Xiujing insisted that it be retained. In the sixth lunar month, a separate Turkic force raided Lanzhou and was driven off by the Tang commander Yang Xuanji. In the eleventh lunar month, Tang appointed General Cheng Wuting as pacification commissioner of the Chanyu circuit to suppress Qutlugh.

Contest with Famous Tang Generals

In the seventh lunar month of 684, the first year of Guangzhai, Wu Zetian deposed Emperor Zhongzong Li Xian as Prince of Luling and enthroned Emperor Ruizong Li Dan. Seeing the instability at court, Qutlugh again moved south and raided Shuozhou, killing officials and civilians, but Cheng Wuting defeated him. In the ninth lunar month, Tang again appointed Cheng as pacification commissioner of the Chanyu circuit. Cheng was skilled at commanding troops and enjoyed high prestige; Tang officers obeyed him and repeatedly defeated Qutlugh's incursions, forcing the Turks to withdraw far away. In the twelfth lunar month, however, Cheng defended the imprisoned official Pei Yan in violation of Wu Zetian's wishes and was executed. The Turkic rulers celebrated the death of their formidable enemy with a banquet, but they also built a shrine to Cheng and prayed there before going to war. Soon afterward, Wang Fangyi, governor of Xiazhou and a friend of Cheng, was exiled to Yazhou in Hainan, where he died. Tang was left without comparably capable commanders on the northern frontier.

In the second lunar month of 685, the first year of Chuigong, Qutlugh repeatedly attacked Tang's northern frontier. Without strong generals, Tang armies suffered successive defeats. Wu Zetian appointed Chunyu Chuping, a middle-ranking officer of the Left Jade-Bell Guard, as expeditionary commander of the Yangqu circuit, with Pu Yingjie as deputy, to attack Qutlugh. On 8 April, Qutlugh raided Daizhou. Chunyu marched to relieve it, but when the Tang army reached the Xinzhou region Qutlugh suddenly attacked; more than five thousand Tang soldiers were killed and the relief attempt failed. In the eleventh lunar month Tang appointed Wei Daijia commander of the Yanran expeditionary army to attack the Turks, but he soon returned without success.

After repeated failures, Wu Zetian recalled Heichi Changzhi, the celebrated general who had repeatedly defeated the Tibetan Empire in the west, and placed him in charge of northern frontier defense. Qutlugh did not cease his attacks even against such a renowned opponent. In the ninth lunar month of 686, the second year of Chuigong, he raided northern Hedong. When more than three thousand Turkic troops reached Liangjing near modern Luquan in Hebei, they encountered Heichi Changzhi and were defeated. Qutlugh temporarily halted offensive operations after this setback.

Battle of Huanghuadui and Final Years

On 22 February 687, the third year of Chuigong, Qutlugh launched a probing raid on Changping, near modern Beijing. Tang again ordered Heichi Changzhi to advance, and Qutlugh withdrew. In the seventh lunar month he attacked again, this time in the Shuozhou area of Hedong, but was defeated by Heichi at Huanghuadui, near modern Shanyin in Shanxi. To avoid further losses, Qutlugh withdrew north of the great desert.

Cuan Baobi, a Tang officer of the Right Gate Guard, was jealous of Heichi Changzhi's achievements and requested permission to pursue the Turks. Wu Zetian ordered him to coordinate with Heichi so that they could support one another. Cuan wanted the credit for himself and, without waiting for Heichi's agreement, led thirteen thousand elite troops more than a thousand kilometers beyond the frontier in pursuit. In the tenth lunar month he caught up with Qutlugh. The Turks had not expected Tang troops and were initially unprepared. Yet Cuan, confident in his numerical strength, failed to attack immediately and instead sent a message announcing his arrival. Qutlugh immediately prepared his forces. In the battle that followed, the Tang army, exhausted by the long march, faced fresh Turkic cavalry that had now made defensive preparations. The Tang force was annihilated, and only Cuan Baobi “escaped alone on horseback.” Enraged by the disaster, Wu Zetian executed Cuan and contemptuously referred to Qutlugh as “Buzulu.”

Qutlugh then led forces westward into Central Asia, leaving the northern frontier relatively open. Seeking revenge, Wu Zetian appointed the monk Xue Huaiyi commander of the Xinping Army on 18 May 689, the first year of Yongchang. Xue advanced to the Zi River, found no Turkic army, carved an inscription commemorating his campaign at Chanyu Terrace, and returned. On 3 September he led another army of two hundred thousand against Qutlugh but again returned without result. That same month, Heichi Changzhi was falsely accused of treason by the cruel official Zhou Xing. Wu Zetian ordered his arrest, and Heichi hanged himself in prison in anger.

In the ninth lunar month of 690, the first year of Tianshou, Wu Zetian replaced Tang with her Zhou dynasty and assumed the title Sacred and Divine Emperor. As Qutlugh prepared to launch another southern campaign, he died of illness in the eleventh lunar month of 691. His son Ashina Mojilian was still young, so his brother Ashina Mo Chuo proclaimed himself qaghan. Not long afterward, Ashide Yuanzhen also died in battle while campaigning in the Western Regions. Mo Chuo later built on Qutlugh's achievements and brought the Second Turkic Khaganate to the height of its power.

Major Activities

Reestablishment of the Turkic Polity

Qutlugh's greatest historical achievement was the restoration of an independent Turkic state. After the Eastern Turkic Khaganate fell in 630, Turkic groups lived under Tang rule for nearly half a century. Exploiting Tang's internal and external crises, Qutlugh began his revolt in 682 with only seventeen men, gradually gathered more than seven hundred followers, occupied Heisha Castle, and eventually expanded his force beyond five thousand. He raided the Toquz Oghuz, acquired large herds of sheep and horses, occupied the Ötüken Mountains, established a royal encampment, proclaimed himself Ilterish Qaghan, and made Heisha Castle his southern headquarters. The restored polity became known as the Second Turkic Khaganate. He campaigned east against the Khitan and north against the Toquz Oghuz, dominated the steppe, and according to the account fought forty-seven campaigns and personally experienced twenty battles, greatly enlarging his power and laying the foundations for the later strength of the khaganate.

Repeated Raids on the Tang Frontier

During his reign, Qutlugh took advantage of Tang's internal and external troubles—including Wu Zetian's seizure of power, attacks by the Tibetan Empire and Western Turks, and political instability—to raid the frontier year after year. He attacked Bingzhou, Dingzhou, Guizhou, Weizhou, Shuozhou, Daizhou, Lanzhou, and Changping, and killed Tang officials including Wang Demao, Li Sijian, Cui Zhibian, and Zhang Xingshi. Although defeated by Xue Rengui at Yunzhou, he quickly recovered. He defeated Chunyu Chuping at Xinzhou, where more than five thousand Tang soldiers died. He lost to Heichi Changzhi at Huanghuadui but soon afterward annihilated Cuan Baobi's elite force of thirteen thousand, so angering Wu Zetian that she used the insulting name “Buzulu” for him. His campaigns imposed heavy military costs on Tang and repeatedly forced the court to redirect armies to the north.

Reliance on the Strategist Ashide Yuanzhen

Qutlugh's success depended heavily on the assistance of Ashide Yuanzhen. Yuanzhen had served as an official supervising surrendered tribes under the Chanyu Protectorate but was imprisoned for an offense. He pretended that he would persuade the Turkic groups to withdraw and instead defected to Qutlugh. Having lived for a long period in the Chinese heartland, Yuanzhen knew Tang frontier defenses and court politics. Qutlugh appointed him Apa Tarkhan and commander of the army. Yuanzhen applied his knowledge of Chinese customs, politics, and internal weaknesses—especially the weakened position of Emperor Gaozong amid court intrigue—to the service of the new qaghan. Under his advice, Qutlugh's operations became more precisely targeted, and at its height the Turkic cavalry was said to number in the hundreds of thousands.

Discovery of the Memorial Site

In 2022, a joint expedition of the International Turkic Academy and the Institute of Archaeology of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences discovered a site on 22 August in Mongolia's Khangai Mountains, historically called the Ötüken region. It was preliminarily identified as the memorial complex of Ilterish Qaghan, Qutlugh, father of Bilge Khan and Kül Tegin and founder of the restored Turkic state. A monument bearing Turkic and Sogdian inscriptions was found there. The team identified nine archaeological features and carried out conservation excavation at one of them. The discovery provides new material evidence for the study of the Second Turkic Khaganate.

Personal Relations

• Illig Qaghan: distant clan ancestor, qaghan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate
• Ashina Mo Chuo: younger brother, qaghan of the Second Turkic Khaganate and successor
• Ashina Duoxifu: younger brother, yabghu
• Ashina Mojilian: son, too young to succeed at Qutlugh's death
• Bilge Khan: son, later qaghan of the Second Turkic Khaganate
• Kül Tegin: son, leading figure of the Second Turkic Khaganate
• Ashide Yuanzhen: strategist, Apa Tarkhan, and army commander
• Ashide Wenfu: clansman and anti-Tang rebel leader
• Ashina Funian: clansman and anti-Tang rebel leader
• Wu Zetian: effective ruler of Tang, who disparagingly called him “Buzulu”
• Pei Xingjian: Tang general who suppressed Turkic rebellions
• Xue Rengui: Tang general who defeated Yuanzhen at Yunzhou
• Cheng Wuting: Tang general who repeatedly defeated Qutlugh
• Heichi Changzhi: Tang general who defeated Qutlugh at Huanghuadui
• Cuan Baobi: Tang general whose army Qutlugh annihilated
• Chunyu Chuping: Tang general defeated by Qutlugh

Historical Assessment

Tang / Contemporary

• Wu Zetian called him “Buzulu” as an expression of contempt, reflecting the Tang court's hostility toward him. (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance)
• The Turks established a shrine to Cheng Wuting and prayed there before campaigns, showing the degree to which Qutlugh feared that formidable Tang commander and indirectly demonstrating the strength of his opponents. (Old Book of Tang, Biography of Cheng Wuting)
• After Qutlugh's death, his brother Mo Chuo succeeded and built on his foundation to bring the Second Turkic Khaganate to its peak, demonstrating Qutlugh's importance as founder. (New Book of Tang, Biography of the Turks)

Song and Yuan Periods

• The Northern Song historian Sima Guang gave a detailed account in the Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance of Qutlugh's revolt, restoration of the Turkic state, and repeated attacks on Tang, treating him as a major northern threat while acknowledging his military ability.
• Song scholars argued that Qutlugh's rise was in part the result of Tang mishandling of surrendered Turkic groups: after Pei Xingjian suppressed the rebellion, Emperor Gaozong killed men who had surrendered under promise of mercy, undermining Tang credibility and enabling Qutlugh to rally supporters. This point appears in Hu Sanxing's annotations to the Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance.
• Yuan historians, when tracing Turkic history during the compilation of the History of Liao, treated Qutlugh as a key figure in the revival of Turkic power.

Ming and Qing Periods

• Wang Fuzhi, the late Ming–early Qing thinker, argued in Commentaries on Reading the Comprehensive Mirror that the frontier danger posed by Qutlugh was closely connected with Wu Zetian's execution of capable generals such as Cheng Wuting and Heichi Changzhi; in his view the Tang court had destroyed its own defenses and allowed the Turks to grow strong.
• Qing scholar Zhao Yi, in Notes on the Twenty-Two Histories, observed that Qutlugh rose by exploiting Tang internal disorder and that his success rested on knowing both his enemy and himself and on choosing his moment well.
• The Qing compilers of the Continuation of the Comprehensive Treatises included Qutlugh in the biography of the Turks and described him as “the ruler who revived the Later Turks.”

Modern Assessments

• Modern historians of the Turks generally regard Qutlugh as a central figure in Turkic political revival. By rebuilding the Turkic polity, he extended its political tradition and exerted a long-term influence on the history of Turkic-speaking peoples. Xue Zongzheng makes this point in his History of the Turks.
• Scholars have also emphasized Ashide Yuanzhen's contribution: Yuanzhen's knowledge of internal Tang conditions helped make Qutlugh's military operations more accurately targeted, as discussed by Wu Yugui in Studies on Relations between the Turkic Khaganates and the Sui-Tang Dynasties.
• The 2022 discovery in the Khangai Mountains of a site thought to be Qutlugh's memorial complex, including Turkic and Sogdian inscriptions, provides new material evidence for the study of the Second Turkic Khaganate and may contribute to understanding Turkic society and culture in his period.