Qifu Guoren

Biography

Family Background and Early Life

Qifu Guoren's family had for generations led the Xianbei Qifu tribe. The tribe had originally roamed north of the Gobi before moving south toward Taiyin Mountain. In the early Taishi era of Emperor Wu of Jin, his sixth-generation ancestor Qifu Youlin led 50,000 households to settle at Gaoping River, after which the tribe continued migrating south. His fifth-generation ancestor, QiFuJie Quan, moved to Qiuntun Mountain, and his great-great-grandfather, QiFuShu Yan, later moved to Yuanchuan. After Shi Le of Later Zhao destroyed Liu Yao's Former Zhao, his grandfather QiFuNuDaHan, fearing Later Zhao's power, moved to Maitian Yuangu Mountain. By the time of his father Qifu Sifan, repeated attacks and plundering by Shi Hu of Later Zhao forced the tribe gradually southward into Longxi, where it settled at Dujian Mountain among Han Chinese communities. The Qifu Xianbei therefore also became known as the Longxi Xianbei.

In 371, Qifu Sifan was defeated by Fu Jian, Emperor Xuanzhao of Former Qin, and Qifu Guoren followed his father and their people in surrendering. Qifu Sifan rose to General Who Pacifies the West under Former Qin, was made Southern Chanyu, and guarded Yongshi River. When he died in 376, Qifu Guoren succeeded to his position and continued to guard Yongshi River, in the area of present-day Xiaguanying, Yuzhong County, Gansu.

Rising with the Opportunity

In 383, Fu Jian, ruler of Former Qin, launched a major invasion of Eastern Jin and initiated the Battle of Fei River. He appointed Qifu Guoren Front General and placed him in command of the vanguard cavalry. At that moment Qifu Guoren's uncle Qifu Butui rebelled in Longxi, and Fu Jian ordered Qifu Guoren to return and suppress him. Qifu Butui was delighted to hear that his nephew was coming and went out to meet him. At a banquet Qifu Guoren declared that Fu Jian had overextended his state through warfare and distant conquest, burdening the people and provoking resentment; in his judgment the coming campaign was likely to fail, and he intended to seize the opportunity to establish a regional power with his followers. After Former Qin suffered a disastrous defeat at Fei River, Qifu Guoren compelled neighboring groups to submit, attacking and absorbing those who refused, until his following exceeded 100,000 people.

In August 385, Fu Jian was killed by Yao Chang. Qifu Guoren told his leading retainers that the fall of the Fu clan despite its former strength showed the turning of Heaven's will, and that a capable man should act when circumstances changed. In September he styled himself Grand Commander, General-in-Chief, and Grand Chanyu, concurrently assumed the governorships of Qin and He provinces, founded the Western Qin polity, adopted the era name Jianyi, and established his capital at Yongshi River.

Founding Institutions

After establishing Western Qin, Qifu Guoren began constructing a governing framework. He appointed Yizhan Yinni as Left Chancellor, Wuyin Chuzhi as Right Chancellor, Dugu Piti as Left Assistant, Wuqun Yongshi as Right Assistant, and his younger brother Qifu Gangui as Senior General, while making other appointments according to rank. He established twelve commanderies—Wucheng, Wuyang, Angu, Wushi, Hanyang, Tianshui, Lueyang, Qiangchuan, Gansong, Kuangpeng, Baima, and Yuanchuan—and built Yongshi City as the capital.

At the outset the new state was surrounded by enemies. In January 386, Bi Yi, a local notable of Nan'an, and allied Qiang groups attacked Western Qin from several directions. Qifu Guoren argued that striking first would break the enemy's resolve and that an apparently weak force could be used to induce overconfidence. He therefore led 5,000 troops in a surprise assault and inflicted a major defeat, forcing Bi Yi back to Nan'an. In July, Bi Yi and his younger brother Mohouti surrendered with more than 30,000 households. Qifu Guoren appointed Bi Yi Inspector of Eastern Qin Province and Mohouti Inspector of Liang Province.

Period as Prince of Yuanchuan

In March 387, Fu Deng, ruler of Former Qin, sent envoys appointing Qifu Guoren Bearer of Credentials, Grand Commander, Commander of the Various Non-Han Peoples, General-in-Chief, Grand Chanyu, and Prince of Yuanchuan. Qifu Guoren accepted the titles, retaining a nominal relationship of subordination while remaining effectively independent.

That June, he led 30,000 cavalry against the Xianbei leaders Mi Gui, Yugou, and Tilen at Liuquan. In July, the Gaoping Xianbei leader Moyigan and the Donghu leader Jin Xi attacked jointly. The armies met at Kehun River, where Qifu Guoren decisively defeated them, killing 3,000 men and capturing 5,000 horses. Moyigan and Jin Xi fled, while the three Xianbei groups, frightened by the defeat, surrendered. Qifu Guoren appointed Mi Gui General of Jianyi and Lord of Liuquan, Yugou General of Jianzhong and Lord of Lanquan, and Tilen General of Jianjie and Lord of Mingquan.

In the same year, his General Jianwei Chilu Wuguba rebelled and occupied Qiuntun Mountain. Qifu Guoren led 7,000 cavalry against him, killed his subordinate Chiluo Hou, and received the surrender of more than 1,000 households. Chilu Wuguba then submitted and was restored to office.

In April 388, Qifu Guoren campaigned against the Xianbei leader Yuezhi Chili at Pingxiang and decisively defeated him, capturing his son Jiegui, his nephew Fuban, and more than 5,000 members of his tribe. Qifu Guoren died in June after a four-year reign and was given the posthumous title Prince Xuanlie and the temple name Liezu.

After his death, the ministers judged his son Qifu Gongfu too young to rule and therefore acclaimed his younger brother Qifu Gangui as Grand Commander, General-in-Chief, Grand Chanyu, and Prince of Henan. Qifu Gangui adopted the era name Taichu.

Major Activities

Founding Western Qin

In September 385, after the death of Fu Jian amid the collapse of Former Qin authority, Qifu Guoren styled himself Grand Commander, General-in-Chief, and Grand Chanyu, assumed the governorships of Qin and He provinces, established Western Qin, adopted the era name Jianyi, and built Yongshi City as his capital. This was the first independent polity established by the Qifu Xianbei and laid the foundation for the later continuation of Western Qin. Although Qifu Guoren himself accepted the Former Qin title Prince of Yuanchuan and did not formally style himself King of Qin, and although his brother Qifu Gangui did not take the title King of Qin until 394, historians nevertheless regard Qifu Guoren as the founding ruler of Western Qin.

Expansion and Incorporation

During his four-year reign Qifu Guoren worked to absorb neighboring Xianbei and Qiang forces. After the Battle of Fei River he compelled surrounding groups to submit and attacked those that resisted, bringing his following to more than 100,000. After founding Western Qin he defeated Bi Yi and the allied Qiang forces, accepted the surrender of more than 30,000 households under Bi Yi and Mohouti, attacked the Xianbei groups of Mi Gui, Yugou, and Tilen at Liuquan, defeated the combined forces of Moyigan and Jin Xi at Kehun River, suppressed Chilu Wuguba's rebellion, and defeated Yuezhi Chili at Pingxiang, capturing more than 5,000 people. These campaigns consolidated the new state.

Establishing Government

Qifu Guoren modeled his institutions on the regimes of the Central Plains. He created offices for Left and Right Chancellors and Left and Right Assistants, appointed senior officials, and placed Qifu Gangui as Senior General. He divided his territory into twelve commanderies and built Yongshi City as the capital, creating the initial administrative framework of Western Qin.

Relations with Former Qin

Although Qifu Guoren established an independent state, he maintained nominal subordination to Former Qin. In 387, Fu Deng appointed him to a series of high military titles and made him Prince of Yuanchuan. By accepting the investiture while preserving practical independence, Qifu Guoren gained nominal legitimacy and additional room for the new Western Qin state to survive.

Personal Relations

• Sixth-generation ancestor: Qifu Youlin, leader of the Xianbei Qifu tribe who led his people to Gaoping River.
• Fifth-generation ancestor: QiFuJie Quan, who moved to Qiuntun Mountain.
• Great-great-grandfather: QiFuShu Yan, who moved to Yuanchuan.
• Great-grandfather: QiFuLiNa.
• Grandfather: QiFuNuDaHan, who moved to Maitian Yuangu Mountain after Later Zhao destroyed Former Zhao.
• Father: Qifu Sifan, General Who Pacifies the West under Former Qin and Southern Chanyu, stationed at Yongshi River.
• Younger brother: Qifu Gangui, King Wuyuan of Western Qin, who succeeded Qifu Guoren.
• Son: Qifu Gongfu, too young to succeed; he later launched a coup and killed Qifu Gangui before being killed by Qifu Chipan.
• Son: Qifu Achai, Administrator of Xingguo, who fled after Gongfu's coup and was killed by QiFuZhiDa.
• Uncle: Qifu Butui, who rebelled in Longxi and welcomed Qifu Guoren.
• Yizhan Yinni: Left Chancellor.
• Wuyin Chuzhi: Right Chancellor.
• Dugu Piti: Left Assistant.
• Wuqun Yongshi: Right Assistant.
• Fu Jian: Emperor Xuanzhao of Former Qin. Qifu Guoren and his father had surrendered to Former Qin, and Fu Jian appointed Qifu Guoren Front General during the Fei River campaign.
• Fu Deng: ruler of Former Qin who invested Qifu Guoren as Prince of Yuanchuan.
• Bi Yi: local notable of Nan'an who led Qiang forces against Western Qin before surrendering after defeat.
• Moyigan: Gaoping Xianbei leader defeated by Qifu Guoren at Kehun River.
• Jin Xi: Donghu leader whose allied force with Moyigan was defeated.
• Yuezhi Chili: Xianbei leader defeated at Pingxiang.

Historical Assessment

Contemporary and Early Historical Accounts

• The Book of Jin, compiled under Fang Xuanling, criticized Qifu Guoren as a remnant of the Yinshan peoples who took advantage of Former Qin's danger to seize nearby territory and establish a regime. (Book of Jin, juan 125, "Hereditary Houses 25")
• The Book of Jin also summarized him as: "Guoren was fierce in arms; Gangui was brave and formidable." (Book of Jin, juan 125)
• Qifu Guoren is recorded as saying that although his own virtue was slight, he inherited the resources of generations and could not watch an opportunity arrive without acting. (Book of Jin, juan 125)

Tang Dynasty

• The Tang-compiled Book of Jin placed Qifu Guoren among the hereditary records of non-orthodox rulers, while acknowledging his martial prowess.
• Fang Xuanling and the other compilers regarded his state-building as an opportunistic move made during Former Qin's collapse.

Song and Yuan Periods

• Sima Guang's Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance records Qifu Guoren's career in detail and places him within the broader rise and fall of the Sixteen Kingdoms.
• The Song-period Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms includes a dedicated Western Qin section and treats Qifu Guoren as its founding ruler.

Modern Period

• Modern historians generally regard Qifu Guoren as a central figure in the establishment of an independent Longxi Xianbei polity and recognize his military ability in founding a state during the upheavals of the Sixteen Kingdoms.
• Scholars note that, despite ruling for only four years, he successfully consolidated several Longxi Xianbei groups and laid the foundations for the continuation of Western Qin.
• Some scholars interpret his acceptance of Former Qin titles while retaining de facto independence as an example of the flexible political strategy used by non-Han regimes during the Sixteen Kingdoms period.