Southern Liang

Overview

Southern Liang was a regional regime established by the Xianbei Tufa clan during the Eastern Jin and Sixteen Kingdoms period. The Tufa were a branch of the Hexi Xianbei. They rose during internal disorder in the Later Liang and established a political base around Lianchuan. At its greatest extent, the polity controlled areas of present-day western Gansu and eastern Qinghai, stretching from west of Lanzhou eastward to near Zhangye in the west, from the southern edge of the Tengger Desert in the north to the Tongren area of Qinghai in the south. Southern Liang had three rulers—Tufa Wugu, Tufa Lilugu, and Tufa Rutan—and shifted its capital among Lianchuan, Xiping, Ledu, and Guzang. Prolonged warfare exhausted the state, and in Yixi 10 (414) Tufa Rutan surrendered to Western Qin, ending Southern Liang after about eighteen years.

Historical Development

Establishment: After becoming leader of the Tufa clan, Tufa Wugu built Lianchuan Fort in the area northwest of present-day Minhe, Qinghai, made it his base, subdued surrounding groups, and expanded his power. In Long'an 1 (397), Wugu proclaimed himself Grand Commander, General-in-Chief, Chanyu, and Prince of Xiping, adopted the Taichu era name, and formally established the regime. He created central offices and commanderies and counties on Chinese models.

Expansion: In Long'an 2 (398), Wugu took advantage of internal disorder in Later Liang and captured the five commanderies south of the mountains. In Long'an 3 (399), he fell from a horse while drunk, suffered serious injuries, and died. His younger brother Tufa Lilugu succeeded him, took the title Prince of Liang or Prince of Hexi, and moved the capital to Xiping, present-day Xining, Qinghai. He brought together Hexi Xianbei groups and repeatedly defeated Later Liang, making Southern Liang a strong regional power. Lilugu did not proclaim himself emperor or adopt a new era name during his reign and continued to rule under a princely title.

Height and turning point: In Yuanxing 1 (402), Lilugu died and his younger brother Tufa Rutan succeeded him. Rutan changed his title to Prince of Liang, adopted the Hongchang era name, and moved the capital to Ledu, present-day Ledu District in Haidong, Qinghai. Seeking control of the major city of Guzang, he acknowledged the suzerainty of Later Qin ruler Yao Xing and presented 3,000 horses and 30,000 sheep. In Yixi 2 (406), Yao Xing appointed him Governor of Liangzhou and placed him in charge of Guzang. Rutan thus obtained Guzang without battle and moved the capital there.

Decline: Rutan pursued repeated military campaigns. From Yixi 3 (407), he fought Northern Liang ruler Juqu Mengxun and Helian Bobo of Hu Xia and suffered repeated defeats. In Yixi 6 (410), he again fought Mengxun at Qiongquan, was badly defeated, and returned on a single horse. Continuous warfare and failed harvests left the state exhausted and hungry. Western Qin under Qifu Chipan pressed from the south, Northern Liang from the north, and social disorder increased.

Fall: In Yixi 10 (414), Rutan campaigned west against the Yifu Xianbei, leaving Crown Prince Wutai to defend Ledu. Western Qin took advantage of the opportunity and captured Ledu. Rutan was forced to surrender, and Southern Liang ended. The region later passed among Western Qin, Northern Liang, and Northern Wei. The preceding states, successors, and principal rivals are recorded in the metadata table.

Economy and Commerce

The Ledu and Xiping regions were relatively poor in grain, and Southern Liang repeatedly moved populations in search of food supplies. Under Tufa Lilugu, the government emphasized agriculture and sericulture and concentrated Han settlers around cities along the Huangshui River to reclaim land and cultivate grain and mulberry. The economy also relied on pastoralism and wartime plunder. Trade with the Western Regions was repeatedly disrupted by warfare. Records of formal frontier markets are limited; more specific economic institutions are described in the relevant entries.

Culture and Society

The Tufa clan had undergone substantial sinicization and valued Confucian learning. Both Lilugu and Rutan established schools, supported scholars, and treated or employed literati from Guanzhong and Hexi. Xianbei groups increasingly moved from pastoralism toward settled life while retaining traditions of horsemanship and archery. Buddhism was widespread in Hexi, and the monk Tanhuo is recorded as preaching in Southern Liang. Society included Xianbei groups as well as Han and other displaced populations, producing a mixed social order in which Xianbei groups formed much of the military population while Han people contributed heavily to agricultural and logistical labor.

Rulers and Governing Core

Tufa Wugu, Tufa Lilugu, Tufa Rutan.

> This section describes the rulers’ positions in the evolution of the polity; full individual biographies are carried by the corresponding person entities.

Historical Assessment and Legacy

Contemporary assessment: Tufa Rutan’s repeated campaigns were blamed for exhausting the state, with historical accounts describing successive failed harvests, hunger among officials and commoners, and social unrest. His reliance on military strength despite deteriorating domestic conditions was treated as an important cause of the state’s collapse.

Later assessment: Later historical writing generally treats Southern Liang as one of the short-lived regional regimes of the Sixteen Kingdoms and criticizes its repeated warfare. At the same time, historians acknowledge its adoption of Chinese institutions, recruitment of literati, development of agriculture, and support for education as contributions to the continuation of Hexi culture. Its mixed Xianbei and Han political and social order also formed part of the historical background of the later Hexi region.