Northern Liang

Overview

Northern Liang (397–460) was a regional regime of the Sixteen Kingdoms period established in the Hexi Corridor by the Juqu clan of the Lushuihu, a branch of the Xiongnu. It was one of the five regimes in the Hexi region that used “Liang” as a state name and was later called Northern Liang because its territory lay to the north of the other Liang regimes. The regime first arose when Duan Ye established himself at Jiankang, after which Juqu Mengxun killed Duan Ye and took power, expanded across the Hexi region, and unified the corridor. Northern Liang became for a time the strongest power in Liangzhou before eventually being destroyed by Northern Wei. Its history can be divided into two parts: the main Northern Liang regime ruled in the Hexi region by Juqu Mengxun and Juqu Mujian (397–439, or from 401 according to another convention), and a continuation in Gaochang after members of the Juqu clan moved west, lasting until 460 and commonly called “Northern Liang of Gaochang.” Northern Liang promoted both Confucian learning and Buddhism, supported cave construction and scripture translation, and maintained important connections between Hexi and the Western Regions.

Historical Development

Foundation: The Juqu clan had traditionally held the title of Left Juqu King among the Xiongnu. By the Eastern Han period they lived around the Lushui region and were known as Lushuihu. They had originally relied on pastoralism and later increasingly adopted agriculture. After Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms) ruler Lü Guang suffered military setbacks, he retaliated by killing the Juqu tribal leaders Juqu Luochou and Juqu Quzhou. Their nephew Juqu Mengxun then used the funeral rites as an occasion to gather followers, swear an oath to oppose Later Liang, and within ten days assemble more than ten thousand men. He attacked Linsong and encamped at Jinshan. His cousin Juqu Nancheng, who served as Later Liang administrator of Jinchang, also rebelled and persuaded Duan Ye, administrator of Jiankang, to break with Later Liang. Juqu Mengxun joined them, and the three forces made Duan Ye their leader. In 397, the eleventh year of Taichu / second year of Longfei, Duan Ye proclaimed himself Governor of Liang Province and Duke of Jiankang at Jiankang, adopted the Shenxi era name, and founded Northern Liang. In 398 he moved the capital to Zhangye, controlling Jiankang, Zhangye, and territories extending toward Dunhuang and Gaochang. In the fifth lunar month of 401, the third year of Tianxi, Juqu Mengxun secretly induced Xu Xian to accuse Juqu Nancheng of plotting rebellion. Duan Ye executed Nancheng, and Mengxun used the killing as a pretext to rise against Duan Ye, capture Zhangye, and kill him. Mengxun then proclaimed himself Governor of Liang Province and Duke of Zhangye and adopted the Yongan era name. This established the Juqu family’s Northern Liang; Duan Ye’s regime had lasted only four years.

High point: After taking power, Juqu Mengxun initially submitted to Later Qin to preserve his position and also exchanged hostages and diplomatic gestures with neighboring states. Beginning in 410, the tenth year of Yongan, he shifted to the offensive. He attacked Southern Liang three times and forced Tufa Rutan to abandon Guzang. In 412, the twelfth year of Yongan, he moved the capital to Guzang, assumed the title Prince of Hexi, adopted the Xuanshi era name, set up central offices on the model of Later Liang, and began palace construction. He then fought Western Qin and regained territories in the Huangshui region. In 420, the ninth year of Xuanshi, Mengxun used a feint to lure Western Liang ruler Li Xin into an ambush at Dudujian and killed him. In 421 he captured Dunhuang and destroyed Western Liang, taking control of the Hexi region. States of the Western Regions then sent envoys and tribute. At this stage Northern Liang extended eastward across parts of present-day Gansu and Ningxia and westward into parts of Xinjiang and Qinghai, making it the strongest power in the Hexi region.

Turning point: Around 418, the seventh year of Xuanshi, Northern Liang increasingly came into contact with the rising Northern Wei in the north. As Northern Wei advanced toward unification of northern China, it paid growing attention to Northern Liang’s strategic control of Hexi. In his later years, Juqu Mengxun became increasingly proud of his standing, and relations with Northern Wei worsened over issues including his refusal to send the eminent monk Dharmakṣema. In 428, the first year of Chengxuan, Mengxun also took advantage of events to seize Fuhan and Xiping from Western Qin, temporarily enlarging his territory, but the overall balance of power in the north was already shifting.

Decline: In the fourth lunar month of 433, the third year of Yihe, Juqu Mengxun died and was succeeded by his son Juqu Mujian. Mujian outwardly treated Northern Wei with deference while maintaining relations with Liu Song in the south and maneuvering among the Rouran and groups of the Western Regions, attempting to balance several powers. In practice, the regime’s position was increasingly difficult. Northern Wei sent Imperial Princess Wuwei, the emperor’s younger sister, to marry Mujian in order to tighten its control. Mujian nevertheless favored Lady Li and neglected the princess; in the third lunar month of 439, Lady Li attempted to poison Imperial Princess Wuwei, providing a direct pretext for Northern Wei intervention.

Fall: In the eighth lunar month of 439, the fifth year of the Taiyan era, Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei, Tuoba Tao, issued twelve charges against Juqu Mujian and personally led an army against Guzang. Mujian hoped for Rouran relief and refused to surrender. His nephew Juqu Wannian surrendered first, after which the city fell. Mujian led five thousand civil and military officials out to surrender. More than two hundred thousand residents and the city’s treasury and valuables passed into Northern Wei hands. The Juqu regime in Hexi ended, and Northern Wei thereby completed its unification of northern China. Mujian was taken to Pingcheng and later forced to die in 447, the eighth year of Taiping Zhenjun. Afterward, his brothers Juqu Wuhui and Juqu Anzhou moved west. In 442, the third year of Taiping Zhenjun, they occupied Gaochang and continued the regime under the Chengping era name, a continuation known as “Northern Liang of Gaochang.” In 460, the eighteenth year of Chengping, the Rouran captured Gaochang and Juqu Anzhou was killed, ending the remaining Northern Liang line.

Politics and Institutions

Northern Liang broadly inherited the official systems of the Wei-Jin era and the other Liang regimes. After taking power, Juqu Mengxun established central offices based on Later Liang institutions, including offices in the Secretariat, the Ministry of Personnel, and the imperial library. Local government continued to use provinces and commanderies, and sources state that at its greatest extent the regime governed twenty-four commanderies. Mengxun reorganized administration, issued regulations, encouraged full use of the land, ordered officials to promote agriculture and sericulture, and punished corruption. Even his uncle Kong Du, administrator of Linsong, was not spared when accused of oppressing the people and was ordered to commit suicide as a warning to others. The regime also distributed grain during disasters. Mengxun sought to attract capable men, overlooking minor faults and employing surrendered officials; Yang Tong, Zhang Mu, Jiao Lang, and others took part in central administration. At the same time he promoted Confucian learning and patronized Han Chinese scholars such as Kan Yin, Liu Bing, and Song Yao, appointing them to literary and editorial posts and providing conditions for scholarship.

Military and Diplomacy

Northern Liang relied on cavalry and fortified cities in the Hexi region. Its rise was supported by a multiethnic armed force of more than fifty thousand. The destruction of Western Liang was a particularly notable campaign: Mengxun used a feint to draw the enemy forward and then ambushed and destroyed a Western Liang army of thirty thousand at Dudujian before rapidly occupying the Hexi region. Diplomatically, Northern Liang followed a strategy to befriend distant states and attack nearby ones, forming flexible alliances, and submitting when useful. It first allied with Southern Liang against Later Liang, then after the fall of Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms) successively acknowledged Later Qin and paid tribute to Northern Wei, using external recognition to reinforce political legitimacy. Toward Western Qin it moved from marriage diplomacy to cooperation with Hu Xia and Tuyuhun in combined pressure. It maintained long-term tributary relations with Liu Song and sought books from the south. Under Juqu Mujian, Northern Liang maneuvered among Northern Wei, Liu Song, the Rouran, and states of the Western Regions in an effort to preserve a balance, but it could not withstand Northern Wei’s superior power. Northern Liang also actively operated in the Western Regions and subdued groups including Shanbei Hu, Sipan, Chegai, and neighboring Xianbei communities, extending its regional base.

Economy and Commerce

The Hexi region lay on a major section of the Silk Road. Northern Liang controlled Zhangye, Guzang, Jiuquan, and routes to the Western Regions, placing it on an important east-west corridor. Juqu Mengxun ordered people to concentrate labor on agriculture, attempting to reverse wartime damage to farmland and shortages of grain and fodder. Agriculture and pastoralism developed together, with horses, cattle, sheep, and other livestock. Metallurgy, brewing, sericulture, and textile production also developed along the Silk Road routes. Trade was especially active by the standards of the Sixteen Kingdoms, with merchants traveling in large numbers, market towns prospering, and practices such as employment, leasing, lending, and commercial exchange becoming common. In 401, the first year of Yongan, Northern Liang began casting the bronze coin bearing the inscription Liang Zao Xin Quan, indicating the development of monetary circulation and commerce. Gaochang and other commanderies retained Han-Wei institutions for water administration, including officials responsible for irrigation and specialized water arrangements for grape cultivation, showing the detailed management of agriculture.

Culture and Society

Northern Liang was an important center of culture during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Juqu Mengxun was a strong patron of Buddhism. Eminent monks gathered under his rule, and he showed respect to Kumārajīva and other monks associated with the transmission of Buddhism in Liangzhou. He also initiated cave construction at the Tiantishan area southeast of the capital. Later caves at Jinta Temple near Zhangye, Mati Temple, and Wenshushan near Jiuquan formed part of what is collectively called the “Liangzhou Grottoes,” and the tradition of cave construction was strongly connected with northern meditation Buddhism. At the same time, the Juqu rulers promoted Han Chinese learning. Mengxun patronized scholars such as Kan Yin, appointed them to literary and administrative posts, and supported the editing of classics and other works amounting to more than three thousand juan. After the destruction of Western Liang, Liu Bing was appointed to the imperial library and provided with facilities for annotation and scholarship. Under Juqu Mujian, Liu Bing was honored as a State Preceptor, while Song Yao, Zhang Zhan, Suo Bi, Yin Xing, Cheng Jun, and other scholars gathered at court. Society was ethnically mixed. Prominent families from Dunhuang, Qinghe, Hedong, and elsewhere lived alongside Xiongnu, Lushuihu, Xianbei, and Qiang groups. The regime used marriage alliances, household registration, and control of non-Han merchant communities in efforts to manage ethnic tensions and promote integration.

Emperors and Governing Core

Duan Ye, Juqu Mengxun, Juqu Mujian.

> This section describes each ruler’s place in the evolution of the regime; full personal biographies are carried by the corresponding person entities.

Historical Assessment and Legacy

Contemporary views: Assessments of Northern Liang were divided. On one hand, members of its political and military establishment praised Juqu Mengxun for building a state in Hexi with non-Han forces and for combining military strength with patronage of learning. On the other hand, historical writers criticized his killing of Duan Ye, repeated warfare, and shifting submissions to stronger states.

Later views: Later historians generally treat Northern Liang as an important Hexi regional regime of the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Its fall ended a long period of political fragmentation in Liangzhou and formed an important step in Northern Wei’s unification of northern China. Northern Liang is especially remembered for two cultural legacies. The first was its patronage of Buddhism, cave construction, scripture translation, and image-making in the Liangzhou cave tradition, which influenced cave art under Northern Wei and later Northern Dynasties. The second was the preservation and transmission of scholarship through cooperation between non-Han rulers and Han Chinese scholars. Chen Yinke later observed that the Juqu rulers, despite not being Han Chinese, appreciated Sinicization and promoted learned men, allowing Hexi scholarship to continue under their rule. These are later historical evaluations rather than direct quotations presented as contemporary primary testimony.