Destruction of Opium at Humen

Background

Lin Zexu publicly destroyed confiscated opium at Humen near Guangzhou, an important act of resistance to foreign aggression in modern Chinese history.

Course of Events

In the 1820s and 1830s, European and American capitalist countries led by Britain imported large quantities of opium into China in an effort to reverse their trade deficit with China. According to the figures cited in the source, about 100 million taels of silver flowed out of China between 1820 and 1840, bringing state finances close to collapse. Widespread opium consumption also harmed physical and mental health, corrupted the bureaucracy, and weakened the combat effectiveness of the military.

The Qing court was deeply divided over how to suppress opium. In 1838 (18th year of Daoguang), Huang Juezi, Minister of the Court of State Ceremonial, submitted a memorial advocating strict prohibition and the death penalty for users. The relaxation faction led by Qishan opposed severe punishments and attributed the opium problem to other social causes. The Daoguang Emperor himself had used opium in his earlier years before quitting, and he remained hesitant over suppression policy.

Lin Zexu had rigorously suppressed opium while serving as governor of Jiangsu and governor-general of Huguang, with notable results. On the basis of this experience, the Daoguang Emperor gradually moved toward strict prohibition, stripped Prince Qing Yidou and Supporting Duke Yiji of their ranks for opium use, and demoted Xu Naiji, a leading advocate of relaxation. On December 31, 1838 (15th day of the 11th month of the 18th year of Daoguang), the emperor appointed Lin Zexu Imperial Commissioner, issued him an official seal of authority, and ordered him to go to Guangdong to suppress opium.

On March 10, 1839 (25th day of the 1st month of the 19th year of Daoguang), Lin Zexu formally arrived in Guangdong. The American merchant William Hunter, who attended the reception, left a description of Lin's appearance: he had “a dignified bearing, a rather stern expression, a stout figure, a thick short black moustache on the upper lip, and a long beard on the chin,” and appeared to be around sixty.

After taking up his post, Lin first visited Yuehua Academy and wrote the couplet: “The sea accepts a hundred rivers, and through capacity becomes great; the cliff rises a thousand ren, and through absence of desire becomes firm.” He then issued orders to foreign opium traders requiring them within three days to surrender all opium and sign pledges that “ships arriving hereafter shall never again dare to carry opium; if any is brought and discovered, the cargo shall be confiscated and the person executed.” Some traders tried to evade the order through bribery, but Lin refused. He summoned 645 students from the Yuexiu, Yuehua, and Yangcheng academies to the examination hall for an “examination,” asking about opium distribution centers, traders' names, retailers, defects in previous suppression policies, and ways to eliminate the trade. This provided him with lists of dealers and corrupt officials.

Foreign merchants delayed and initially surrendered only 1,037 chests of opium. Lin ordered the Guangzhou coast sealed and the Thirteen Factories surrounded. Charles Elliot, Chief Superintendent of British Trade in China, rushed from Macao to Guangzhou and at one point entered with sword drawn but could not leave. Lin cut off communications, water, and food supplies to the Thirteen Factories, forcing about 350 foreigners to manage on their own.

On March 28, 1839 (14th day of the 2nd month of Daoguang 19), Elliot yielded and submitted a document agreeing to surrender 20,283 chests of opium. He surrendered the opium “in the name of Her Britannic Majesty's Government,” thereby transforming the commercial dispute into a confrontation between the Chinese and British governments.

On April 10, 1839 (16th day of the 2nd month), Lin Zexu and Yukun, Superintendent of Guangdong Customs, traveled by boat to Humen and, together with Guan Tianpei, Admiral of the Guangdong Navy, inspected the surrendered opium. The traders delivered it at Shajiao and receipts were issued aboard the Louisa. Lin proposed rewarding each chest surrendered with five jin of tea.

During the surrender process, Elliot at one point delayed. Dutch traders promised never again to sell opium, while Elliot interfered and removed part of the drug. Lin responded by extending the blockade of the Thirteen Factories, and Elliot eventually surrendered the full amount. By May 18, 1839 (6th day of the 4th month), the surrender was complete: 19,187 chests and 2,119 bags had been received.

Lin originally planned to transport the opium to Beijing for destruction, but Censor Deng Ying advised destroying it locally to prevent substitution, and the Daoguang Emperor approved. Lin first tried the traditional method of burning opium mixed with tung oil, but residues seeped into the ground and users could dig up contaminated soil and still recover two or three tenths of the drug. He then adopted a seawater-dissolution method. Two pools were dug by the sea, lined with stone on the bottom and boards at the sides. Channels brought salt water into the pools. The opium was cut into four pieces, soaked in salt water for half a day, and mixed with lime, causing it to boil and dissolve. Soldiers stirred the mixture with wooden rakes. At low tide, the liquid was released into the open sea, after which the bottoms of the pools were washed with clean water.

On June 3, 1839 (22nd day of the 4th month), the destruction at Humen formally began. A ceremonial platform was erected, with a long yellow-silk banner identifying Lin as an imperial commissioner dispatched by edict to investigate affairs at Guangdong's seaports, with authority over the land and naval units under his command as governor-general. Officials of all ranks in Guangdong attended and large crowds came to watch. Foreign merchants not involved in the opium trade, consuls, foreign journalists, and missionaries also visited; according to the source, none were British. Ten foreign observers, including the American merchant C. W. King, missionary Elijah Coleman Bridgman, and a merchant-ship captain named Benson, initially doubted that all the opium could be destroyed. After repeatedly inspecting the pools, they were convinced and removed their hats in respect to Lin. Bridgman wrote in The Chinese Repository that they had repeatedly examined part of the destruction process and that the care and fidelity shown in carrying it out far exceeded their expectations.

The destruction continued until the fifteenth day of the fifth month (June 25, 1839), lasting twenty-three days.

Results and Impact

Lin Zexu publicly destroyed confiscated opium at Humen near Guangzhou, an important act of resistance to foreign aggression in modern Chinese history.

The destruction demonstrated the Qing court's determination to eliminate opium and struck at illegal trade. Britain subsequently launched the First Opium War on the grounds of commercial and diplomatic disputes, bringing Sino-British relations into a phase of armed conflict.