Battle of Red Cliffs

Background

After largely unifying the north, Cao Cao marched south in the seventh lunar month of 208, intending to eliminate the southern regional powers in a single campaign.

Course of Events

The Battle of Red Cliffs was not the biography of a single figure but a major historical event involving several political and military forces. Its course can be divided into the following stages.

The battle grew out of Cao Cao's southward strategy after the unification of most of northern China. In 196, the first year of Jian'an, Cao Cao received Emperor Xian of Han at Xu and thereby gained the political advantage of acting in the emperor's name. Over the following decade, he defeated Lü Bu, Yuan Shu, Liu Bei, and other rivals. In 200, the fifth year of Jian'an, he defeated Yuan Shao's much larger force at the Battle of Guandu and gradually unified the territory north of the Yellow River. In 207, the twelfth year of Jian'an, Cao Cao campaigned against the Wuhuan and eliminated the remaining Yuan forces, largely stabilizing the north. His adviser Guo Jia had earlier proposed that Jing Province should be secured first. Jing occupied the middle Yangtze, controlled the Han and Mian river routes to the north, extended toward the South Sea, connected with the Wu-Yue region in the east, and linked to Ba and Shu in the west, making it a major strategic crossroads. Under Liu Biao, Jing was described as fertile and populous. Control of Jing would give Cao Cao a base for further southward expansion, weaken Sun Quan in Jiangdong and Liu Zhang in Yi Province, and support his broader goal of unifying the realm.

In the first lunar month of 208, after returning to Ye, Cao Cao immediately began preparing for a southern campaign. He ordered Xuanwu Pool excavated for naval training and stationed Zhang Liao, Yu Jin, Yue Jin, and other generals south of Xu to guard against contingencies. He also consolidated his political authority: he abolished the offices of the Three Excellencies and made himself Chancellor; executed Kong Rong, who opposed him; and compelled the northwestern warlord Ma Teng to enter court as Minister of the Guards, moving Ma Teng's family to Ye as hostages in order to reduce the threat from the northwest.

In the seventh lunar month, Cao Cao personally led an army south toward Jing Province. Liu Biao died in the eighth lunar month, and his son Liu Cong succeeded him with the support of Cai Mao, Zhang Yun, and others. Facing Cao Cao's advance, Liu Cong followed the advice of local Jing elites including Kuai Yue and Fu Xun and decided to surrender. Fu Xun argued that resisting the Son of Heaven as a subordinate would constitute rebellion, that Jing Province had only just come under Liu Cong's control and could not safely oppose the imperial army, and that relying on Liu Bei was untenable: if Liu Bei could not stop Cao Cao, Jing could not protect itself, and if Liu Bei could stop Cao Cao, he would no longer remain subordinate to Liu Cong. Liu Cong accepted the argument. In the ninth lunar month, Cao Cao reached Xinye. Liu Cong formally surrendered and sent the insignia issued by the court. Many Cao commanders suspected a feigned surrender, but Lou Gui reasoned that in a divided empire regional powers valued the symbols of imperial authority, and that surrendering such insignia indicated sincerity. Cao Cao therefore accepted Liu Cong's surrender and continued his advance.

Liu Bei, then dependent on Liu Biao and stationed at Fancheng, learned of Liu Cong's surrender only when Cao Cao's army was near Wancheng. Shocked and angry but unable to resist Cao Cao's main force, he abandoned Fancheng and withdrew south. When he passed Xiangyang, some advisers urged him to attack Liu Cong and seize Jing Province. Liu Bei refused on the grounds that Liu Biao had entrusted his heir to him before death. He declared that he would not save himself through betrayal and would otherwise have no face to meet Liu Biao after death.

Many people of Jing followed Liu Bei, reportedly more than 100,000 civilians with thousands of carts, making the march very slow. Cao Cao learned that Jiangling held large quantities of military supplies and, fearing Liu Bei might seize them first, left his baggage behind and personally led 5,000 elite cavalry in rapid pursuit. He caught Liu Bei at Changban near Dangyang. Taken by surprise, Liu Bei's army collapsed. Liu Bei abandoned his family and fled on horseback with Zhuge Liang, Zhang Fei, Zhao Yun, and several dozen others. Zhang Fei led twenty cavalry to cover the retreat, held the riverbank after destroying the bridge, brandished his spear, and challenged the pursuing army. No one approached, allowing Liu Bei to escape. Zhao Yun rescued Liu Bei's young son Liu Shan and Lady Gan in the confusion. Cao Cao captured large numbers of men, horses, and baggage and then advanced toward Jiangling.

Liu Bei fled east to Xiakou and joined forces with Liu Qi, who came from Jiangxia. At this time, Sun Quan in Jiangdong, acting on Lu Su's advice, was closely watching developments in Jing Province. Lu Su traveled to Jing ostensibly to mourn Liu Biao and investigate the situation. He met Liu Bei at Changban during the retreat, conveyed Sun Quan's willingness to cooperate, and urged Liu Bei not to seek refuge with Wu Ju, governor of Cangwu. Lu Su argued that Sun Quan was intelligent and benevolent, respected capable men, commanded six commanderies, and possessed strong troops and ample provisions, and that Liu Bei should send a trusted representative to establish contact and pursue common goals. Liu Bei accepted the proposal and moved to Fankou in E County. Zhuge Liang also became friendly with Lu Su because Lu Su was a friend of his elder brother Zhuge Jin.

Zhuge Liang then accompanied Lu Su to Chaisang to meet Sun Quan. He argued that Cao Cao's army was exhausted by long-distance campaigning, that northerners were unaccustomed to naval warfare, and that the people of Jing had submitted under military pressure rather than willingly. If Sun Quan and Liu Bei cooperated, he argued, Cao Cao could be defeated. He pointed out that Cao Cao's cavalry had reportedly ridden more than three hundred li in a day and night while pursuing Liu Bei, likening them to a powerful crossbow bolt at the end of its flight. He also stressed that the people of the north were inexperienced on water and that Jing's people were not sincerely loyal to Cao Cao. A joint effort, Zhuge Liang argued, could force Cao Cao back north, strengthen Jing and Wu, and create a three-way balance. Sun Quan was pleased but did not immediately make a final decision.

Cao Cao then sent Sun Quan a letter claiming that he was training 800,000 naval troops and intended to “hunt together” with Sun Quan in Wu, an unmistakable threat. Sun Quan showed the letter to his subordinates. Chief Clerk Zhang Zhao and others advocated surrender, arguing that Cao Cao acted in the name of the emperor and now controlled the Jing navy, meaning the Yangtze barrier could no longer protect them. Lu Su alone strongly opposed surrender. He told Sun Quan that someone like Lu Su could surrender to Cao Cao and still hope for local office and eventual promotion, but Sun Quan himself would have nowhere secure to go. Sun Quan replied that the surrender arguments had disappointed him and that Lu Su's plan matched his own thinking.

At the same time, Zhou Yu returned from Poyang and analyzed Cao Cao's weaknesses. He argued that although Cao Cao claimed to be the Han chancellor, he was in reality a usurping enemy of the Han; the north was not fully stable, with Ma Chao and Han Sui still active in the west; and the southern campaign was therefore risky. Zhou Yu also argued that Cao Cao had abandoned the advantages of cavalry and was attempting to fight the Wu and Yue forces on water, where northerners lacked experience. It was also deep winter, fodder for horses was scarce, and Cao Cao's distant army was exhausted. Sun Quan made his decision and appointed Zhou Yu and Cheng Pu as the left and right commanders, Lu Su as Colonel Who Praises the Army, and sent 30,000 elite troops to join Liu Bei against Cao Cao.

In the twelfth lunar month of 208, Cao Cao led his army downstream from Jiangling while Zhou Yu led the allied force upstream. The two sides met at Red Cliffs. Cao Cao's army had marched a long distance, northern soldiers were unaccustomed to the climate and water, and disease had already spread through the camp. Cao's forces lost the first encounter and withdrew to Wulin on the northern bank of the Yangtze, while Zhou Yu's forces occupied the southern bank. The two sides faced each other across the river.

Cao Cao had his ships chained bow to stern to make life aboard easier for soldiers unaccustomed to the water. This also created an opportunity for a fire attack. Huang Gai observed the weakness and told Zhou Yu that because the enemy was numerous and their own force small, a prolonged contest would be difficult, but Cao Cao's ships were connected and could be burned. Zhou Yu accepted the proposal and decided to use a feigned surrender to approach the enemy.

Huang Gai prepared several dozen fast assault vessels filled with dry wood and grass, soaked them in oil, covered them with red cloth, and sent a secret letter to Cao Cao claiming that he wished to surrender. Cao Cao believed him. When a strong southeast wind arose, Huang Gai sailed with the wind toward Cao Cao's fleet. At about two li from the enemy camp, the ships were set alight simultaneously. Driven by the wind, the burning vessels struck Cao Cao's ships. Because the ships were chained together, they could not disperse. Flames spread through the fleet and then to the camps ashore. The allied army crossed the river and attacked, inflicting a major defeat and heavy casualties. Cao Cao ordered his remaining ships burned and withdrew by way of Huarong. Hunger and disease caused further losses during the retreat. Cao Ren and Xu Huang were left to defend Jiangling while Cao Cao returned north.

After the Battle of Red Cliffs, Cao Cao's southward momentum was decisively checked. He returned north and was unable in the short term to launch another large-scale southern campaign. Sun Quan and Liu Bei expanded their territories. Zhou Yu besieged Jiangling and fought Cao Ren for more than a year before forcing Cao Ren to withdraw north. Liu Bei presented Liu Qi as Inspector of Jing Province and led troops south, successively receiving the submission of Changsha, Lingling, Guiyang, and Wuling commanderies. After Liu Qi died, Liu Bei's followers supported him as Governor of Jing Province, and his power grew rapidly. Sun Quan, seeking to maintain the alliance, married his younger sister to Liu Bei and “lent” Liu Bei Nan Commandery in Jing Province so that they could continue resisting Cao Cao together. A three-way political balance had thus begun to take shape: Cao Cao held the north, Sun Quan controlled Jiangdong, and Liu Bei possessed southern Jing and used it as a base for further expansion toward Yi Province.

Results and Impact

The Sun–Liu allied forces used a fire attack to inflict a major defeat on Cao Cao's fleet.

The battle laid the foundation for the tripartite balance among the Three Kingdoms.